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258 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What does sociology offer?
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a perspective, a view of the world
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What stresses the social contexts in which people live
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Sociological perspective
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A group of people who share a culture and a territory
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Society
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the corners in life that people occupy because of where they are located in a society
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Social location
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What makes us do what we do?
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The society in which we grow up and our particular location in that society lie at the center of what we do and what we think
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requires the development of theories that can be tested by systematic research
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Science
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Measured by science, when did sociology appear on the human scene?
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about the middle of the 1800s, when social observers began to use scientific methods to test their ideas
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What resulted in the birth of sociology?
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The scientific method was being tried out in chemistry and physics about the time that the Industrial Revolution ended. With tradition no longer providing the answers to questions about social life, the logical step was to apply the scientific method to these questions.
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the idea of applying the scientific method to the social world - first proposed by Auguste Comte
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Positivism
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the study of society
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sociology
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Who is often credited with being the founder of sociology? Why?
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Auguste Comte
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Who developed this idea and coined the term sociology (even though his conclusions have been abandoned)?
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Auguste Comte
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Who is sometimes called the second founder of sociology?
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Herbert Spencer
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Who coined the phrase, "only the most capable and intelligent members of the society survive, while the less capable die out."
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Herbert Spencer
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Who proposed that workers unite in revolution and throw off their chains of bondage resulting in a classless society - people will work according to their capabilities and receive according to their needs (classic conflict).
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Karl Marx
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Who identifies Social integration?
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Emile Durkheim
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the degree to which people are tied to thier social group, as a key social factor in suicide - people who have weaker social ties are more likely to commit suicide
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Social integration
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From Drukheim's study of suicide, we see what principle as being central in his research?
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Human behavior cannot be understood simply in individualistic terms; we must always examine the social forces that affect people's lives
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Whose idea was, "Religion was the key factor in the rise of capitalism."
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Max Weber
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What are sociological theories?
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Statements about how facts are related to one another
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___________ ______________are based on certain basic core assumptions, or basic metaphysical, epistemological and moral premises, about the nature of the social world.
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sociological theories
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What are some major sociological research methods used?
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Surveys, observation, experiment, and analysis of existing data
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Society is made up of interdependent parts that perform functions for society as a whole
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Functionalist perspective
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The majority agree on what would be good for everybody
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Under the functionalist perspective, it is believed that society is held together by social consensus. What is it?
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Portrays society as always changing and marked by conflict
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Conflict perspective
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A micro view of society - people assign meanings to each other's words and actions - our response to a person's actions is determined by our subjective interpretation of that action
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Symbolic interactionist perspective
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The researcher takes part in the group they are studying
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participant observation
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The researcher observes as an uninvolved outsider, from a distance
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detached observation
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What are the three primary theoretical frameworks?
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Symbolic interactionism, functional analysis, and conflict theory
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_________ ______________concentrates on the meanings that underlie people's lives (usually focuses on the micro level)
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symbolic interactionism
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_________ _________stresses that society is made up of various parts that, when working properly, contribute to the stability of society (focuses on the macro level)
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functional analysis
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stresses inequalities and sees the basis of social life as a competitive struggle to gain control over scarce resources (also focuses on the macro level)
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conflict theory
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sociology that is used to solve social problems
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applied sociology
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A factor that causes a change in another variable
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independent variable
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a factor that is changed by an independent variable
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dependent variable
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a feeling of trust between researchers and subjects
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rapport
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individuals among a target population
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samples
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what people do when they are in one another's presence
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social interaction
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the scientific study of society and human behaviour
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sociology
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The _____ ______ stresses the social contexts in which people are immersed and that influence their lives.
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sociological perspective
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Who was the first African American to earn a doctrate at Harvard?
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W.E.B. Du Bois
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Who was concerned about social injustice & wrote about race relations?
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W.E.B. Du Bois
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Who taught sociology for most of their career at Atlanta University?
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W.E.B. Du Bois
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Who was the founder of Hull House - a settlement house in the immigrant community of Chicago
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Jane Addams
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Who in 1931, was a winner of the Nobel Peace Prize?
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Jane Addams
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an Englishwoman who published Society in America decades before either Durkheim or Weber was born?
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Harriet Martineau
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Who carried out doctoral research on homosexual activity - to obtain information, he misrepresented himself to his research subjects, when this became known he was questioned on his ethics?
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Laud Humphreys
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Who believed that societies evolve from barbarian to civilized forms? first to use the expression "survival of the fittest"
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Herbert Spencer
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Who was first to use the expression "survival of the fittest"?
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Herbert Spencer
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Who contributed the terms "manifest and latent functions" and "latent dysfunctions" to the functionalist perspective?
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Robert Merton
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Scientific research follows eight basic steps, what are they?
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Selecting a topic, defining the problem, reviewing the literature, formulating a hypothesis, choosing a research method, collecting the data, analyzing the results, and sharing the results
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A step of scientific research that involves collecting data by having people answer a series of questions?
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surveys
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When everyone in the target population has the same chance of being included in the study, this is called what?
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random sample
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Whan a sample of specific subgroups of the target population in which everyone in the subgroup has an equal chance of being included in the study, this is called what?
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stratified random sample
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people who respond to a survey
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respondents
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A question in which the respondent selects one answer from a list of possible answers?
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close-ended questions
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A question in which the respondents answer the questions in their own words
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open-ended questions
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observing social behaviour of people who do not know they are being studied?
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unobtrusive measures
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How people use symbols to develop their views of the world and to communicate with one another is the definition of what?
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Symbolic interactionists
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What is the central idea of functional analysis?
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Society is a whole unit; it is made up of interrelated parts that work together
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What do functionalists say we need to look at to understand society?
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Structure (how the parts of a society fit together to make the whole) and function (what each part does, how it contributes to society)
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An action that is intended to help come part of a system?
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manifest function
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Unintended consequences that help a system adjust?
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latent function
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What do conflict theorists stress?
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Society is composed of groups that engage in fierce competition for scarce resources
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large-scale patterns of society
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macro-level
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A step of scientific research that involves a statemenet of what you expect to find according to predictions that are based on a theory?
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hypothesis
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precise ways to measure variables?
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operational definitions
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the language, beliefs, values, norms, behaviors, and even material objects that are passed from one generation to the next?
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culture
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such things as jewelry, art, buildings, weapons, machines, hairstyles and clothing?
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material culture
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a group's way of thinking (beliefs and values) and doing (common patterns of behavior: language, gestures, interaction)?
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nonmaterial culture
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the disorientation that people experience when they come in contact with a fundamentally different culture and can no longer depend on their taken-for-granted assumptions about life?
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culture shock
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a tendency to use our own group's ways of doing things as the yardstick for judging others
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ethnocentrism
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trying to understand a culture on its own terms - looking at how the elements of a culture fit together without judging those elements as superior or inferior to one's own way of life
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cultural relativism
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another name for nonmaterial culture - its central component is the symbols that people use
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symbolic culture
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something to which people attach meaning and that they then use to communicate (gestures, language, values, norms, sanctions, folkways)
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symbols
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using one's body to communicate with others - shorthand ways to convey messages without using words
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gestures
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symbols that can be strung together in an infinite number of ways for the purpose of communicating abstract thought
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language
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Our ability to speak provides us with what?
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a social past and future - language allows culture to develop
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rather than objects and events forcing themselves onto our consciousness, it is our language that determines our consciousness, and hence our perception, of objects and events?
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Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
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ideas of what is desirable in life - standards by which people define what is good and bad, beautiful and ugly
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values
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rules of behavior that develop out of a group's values
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norms
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reactions people get for following or breaking norms
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sanctions
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norms that are not strictly enforced
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folkways
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norms that we think of as essential to our core values and insist on conformity
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mores
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a norm so strongly ingrained that even the thought of its violation is greeted with revulsion
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taboo
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a world within the larger world of the dominant culture
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subculture
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some of the group's values and norms place it at odds with the dominant culture
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counterculture
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Type of society made up of many different groups?
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pluralistic society
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What country is an example of pluralistic society?
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United States
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What are some of the values in U.S. Society?
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achievement and success; individualism; activity and work; efficiency and practicality; science and technology; progress; material comfort; humanitarianism; freedom; democracy; equality; racism and group superiority; education; religiosity; romantic love
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independent values that are clutered together to form a whole
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value clusters
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refers to the values, norms, and goals that a group considers ideal, worth aspiring to
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ideal culture
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the norms and values that people actually follow
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real culture
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tools and the skills or procedures necessary to make and use those tools
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technology
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an emerging technology that has a significant impact on social life
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new technology
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What sets a framework for a group's nonmaterial culture?
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Technology
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not all parts of a culture change at the same pace, when some part of a culture changes, other parts lag behind?
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What is cultural lag and who coined the term?
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Who coined the term "cultural lag?"
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William Ogburn
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Who pointed out, "a group's material culture usually changes first, with the nonmaterial culture lagging behind."
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William Ogburn
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during contacts with other groups people learn from one another, adapting some part of the other's way of life - groups are most open to a change in their technology or material culture
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cultural diffusion
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a process in which cultures become similar to one another
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cultural leveling
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the entire human environment including direct contact with others?
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social environment
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when people learn to be members of the human community through human contact
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socialization
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the picture that we have of how others see us, our image of who we are
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self
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Who coined the term 'looking-glass self'?
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Charles Horton Cooley
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What refers to the process by which our self develops thruogh internalizing others' reactions to us?
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looking-glass self
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What are the three elements of the "looking-glass self"?
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1. We imagine how we appear to those around us; 2. We interpret others' reactions; 3. We develop a self-concept
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When does the development of the "self" end?
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Never - it is never a finished project, but is always in process
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What do childern learn during play?
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to "take the role of the other" - to put themselves in someone else's shoes, to understand how someone else feels and thinks and to anticipate how that person will act
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individuals who significantly influences one's life, such as parents or siblings
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significant others
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oru perception of how people in general think of us
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generalized other
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What are the three stages of "taking the role of others"?
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1. Imitation (under 3 years old); 2. Play (3 - 6 years old); 3. Games
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(from birth to about age 2) understanding is limited to direct contact with the environment
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sensorimotor stage
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(from about age 2 to age 7) develop the ability to use symbols
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preoperational stage
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(from the age of about 7 to 12) reasoning abilities are more developed, but they remain concrete
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concrete operational stage
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(after the age of about 12) children are now capable of abstract thinking
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formal operational stage
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A basic structure underlies the way we develop reasoning, and children all over the world begin with the concrete and move to the abstract.
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What is Piaget's contribution to reasoning?
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What three elements did Sigmund Freud say personality consisted of?
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id-inborn drives that cause us to seek self-gratification; ego-the balancing force between the id and the demands of society that suppress its; superego-conscience
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What does the superego represent?
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the culture within us, the norms and values we have internalized from our social groups
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factors such as social class and people's roles in groups underlie their behavior
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central principle of sociology
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What are the six basic emotions that Paul Ekman concluded are universal?
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anger, disgust, fear, happiness, sadness, and surprise
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What is being referred to with the following phrase: society within you
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socialization
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expecting different attitudes and behaviors from us because we are male or female
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gender socialization
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individuals of roughly the same age who are linked by common interests
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peer group
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forms of communication that are directed to large audiences
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mass media
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giving privileges and obligations to one group of people while denying them to another
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social inequality
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people and groups that influence our orientations to life
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agents of socialization
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learning to play a role before entering it
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anticipatory socialization
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learning new norms, values, attitudes, and bevahiors to match their new situation in life
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resocialization
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a place in which people are cut off from the rest of society and where they come under almost total control of the officials who run the place
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total institution
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an attempt to remake the self by stripping away the individual's current identity and stamping a new one in its place
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degradation ceremony
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stages of life (from birth to death)
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life course
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places the focus on broad features of society
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macrosociology
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the emphasis is place on social interaction, what people do when they come together
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microsociology
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what people do when they come together
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social interaction
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the typical patterns of a group, such as its usual relationships between men and women or students and teachers
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social structure
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large numbers of people who have similar amounts of income and education and who work at jobs that are roughly comparable in prestige
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social class
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the position that someone occupies
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status
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all the statuses or positions that someone occupies
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status set
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involuntary - you inherit an ascribed status at birth at are also given to you later in life
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ascribed status
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voluntary - you earn or accomplish as a result of your efforts
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achieved status
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signs that identify a status
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status symbols
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one that cuts across the other statuses that one holds
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master status
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a contradiction or mismatch between their statuses
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status inconsistency
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the behaviors, obligations, and privileges attached to a status
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roles
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What is the difference between roles and status?
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You occupy a status and you play a role
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consists of people who regularly interact with one another
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group
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the ways that each society develops to meet its basic needs
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social institutions
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depend on hunting and gathering for their survival - fewest social divisions - most egalitarian
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hunting and gathering societies
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based on the pasturing of animals
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pastoral societies
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based on the cultivation of plants by the use of hand tools
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horticultural societies
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many more people were able to engage in activities other than farming - to develop the things popularly known as culture
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agricultural societies
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far more efficient than anything the world had ever seen
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industrial societies
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one based on information, services, and the latest technology rather than on raw materials and manufacturing
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postindustrial (information) societies
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an economy that centers on the application of genetic structures - both plant and animal - for the production of food and medicine
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bioeconomic society
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people who perform similar tasks develop a shared consciousness, a sense of similarity that unites them into a common whole
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mechanical solidarity
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like organs - people perform different taks but depend on one another to make the whole
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organic solidarity
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social life is like a drama or a stage play
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dramaturgy
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the efforts to manage the impressions that others receive of us
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impression management
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What is the difference between role conflict and role strain?
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role conflict is conflict between roles, while role strain is conflict within a role
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study of how people use commonsense understandings to make sense of everyday life
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ethnomethodology
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consist of individuals who temporarily share the same physical space but who do not see themselves as belonging together
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aggregate
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consists of people who share similar characteristics, such as college women who wear glasses
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category
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those characterized by intimate face-to-face association and cooperation
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primary groups
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based on some interest or activity, and their members are likely to interact on the basis of specific statuses
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secondary groups
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many are ruled by a few
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oligarchy
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groups to which we feel loyalty
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in-groups
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those toward which we feel antagonism
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out-groups
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groups we use as standards to evaluate ourselves
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reference groups
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clusters of people, internal factions
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cliques
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the links between people
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social network
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no other form of social organization is more efficient
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bureaucracies
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What is the corporate culture of U.S. compared to Japan?
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U.S. - individualism, job shopping/hopping, work has set hours, perform on job, make decision on own; Japan - teamwork, lifetime security, work is like a marriage, broa training, decision by consensus
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how groups influence us and how we affect groups
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group dynamics
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few enough members that each one can directly interact with all the other members
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small group
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smallest possible group, a group of 2 people
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dyad
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group of 3 people
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triad
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some group members aligning themselves agains others
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coalition
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What happens as a small group becomes larger?
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it becomes more stable, but its intensity and intimacy decrease
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someone who influences the behaviors, opinions, or attitudes of others
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leader?
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tries to keep the group moving toward its goal
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instrumental leader
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increases harmony, lifts group morale, and minimizes conflict
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expressive leader
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one who gives orders
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authoritarian leader
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one who tries to gain a consensus
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democratic leader
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one who is highly permissive
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laissez-faire leader
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collective tunnel vision that group members sometime develop
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groupthink
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What makes something deviant?
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it is not the act itself, but the reactions to the act, that make something deviant
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any violation of norms
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deviance
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characteristics that discredit people
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stigma
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a group's customary social arrangements
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social order
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formal and informal means of enforcing norms
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social control
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ranges from frowns and gossip to imprisonment and capital punishment
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negative sanctions
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from smiles to formal awards
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positive sanctions
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inborn tendencies; in this context, to commit deviant acts
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genetic predispositions
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the view that a personality disturbance of some sort causes an individual to violate social norms
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personality disorders
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we learn to deviate or conform to society's norms by the different groups we associate with
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differential association
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two control systems work against our motivations to deviate
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control theory
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What are the control systems?
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inner controls - internailized mobility; outer controls - people
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the view that the labels people are given affect their own and others perceptions of them, thus channeling their behavior into deviance or conformity
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labeling theory
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What are the 5 techniques of neutralization?
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1. denial of resonsibility; 2. denial of injury; 3. denial of a victim; 4. condemnation of the condemners; 5. appeal to higher loyalties
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What do labels do?
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open and close doors of opportunity
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According to functionalists, deviance is functional to society because it contributes to the social order by:
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1. clarifying moral boundaries and affirming norms; 2. promoting social unity; 3. promoting social change
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legitimate ways of achieving success
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institutionalized means
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when people strive to achieve cultural goals but are not presented with institutionalized means of getting there which may result in deviance
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strain theory
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crimes that people of respectable and hgih social status commit in the course of their occupations
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white-collar crime
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percentage of former prisoners who are rearrested
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recidivism rate
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How do conflict theorists explain deviance?
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the position in power (the capitalist class) imposes its definitions of deviance on other groups (working calss and marginal working class)
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What are common reactions to deviance in the U.S.?
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imprisonment, capital punishment, degradation ceremonies, hate crimes
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deviance represents mental illness
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medicalization of deviance
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a system in which groups of people are divided into layers according to their relative power, property, and prestige (does not refer to individuals)
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social stratification
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What are the three major systems of social stratification?
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slavery, caste, and class
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beliefs that justify social arrangements
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ideology
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status is determined by birth and is lifelong
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caste system
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marriage within their own group, and prohibits intermarriage (caste system)
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endogamy
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based primarily on money or material possessions, which can be acquired - so this sysem is much more open
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class system
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movement up or down the class ladder
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social mobility
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What did Karl Marx say determined social class?
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means of production - the tools, factories, land, and investment capital used to produce wealth
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Marx said there are just two classes of people:
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bourgeoisie - those who own the means of production; proletariat - those who work for the owners
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What did Max Weber say made up social class?
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a combination of property, prestige, and power
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1. society must offer people greater awards to attract the most capable ones; 2. every society must have leadership 3. resources are limited and an elite emerges as groups struggle for them
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social stratification universal
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How are the world's nations stratified?
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Most Industrialized, Industrializing, Least Industrialized
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Why are some nations rich and others poor?
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global stratification can be explained by: colonialism, world system theory, and the culture of poverty
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one country making colonies out of other countries
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colonialism
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economic and political connections that tie the world's countries together
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world system theory
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a way of life that perpetuates poverty from one generation to the next
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culture of poverty
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a large group of people who rank closely to one another in wealth, power, and prestige
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social class
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What is the primary dimension of social class?
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wealth - the value of a person's property
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the ability to carry out your will despite resistance
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power
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those who make the big decisions in U.S. society
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power elite
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respect or regard
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prestige
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ranking high or low on all three dimensions of social class: education, income, and occupational prestige
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status consistency
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rankin ghigh on some dimensions of social class and low on others
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status inconsistency?
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our social ranking
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status
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Capitalist, Upper Middle, Lower Middle, Working, Working Poor, Underclass
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the social classes
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Symbolic interactionsist emphasize what?
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people perceive events from their own corner in life
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no aspects of life go untouched, from marriage to politics
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What aspects of life go untouched by social class?
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intergenerational, structural, and exchange
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What are the three basic types of social mobility?
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a change that occurs between generations (when grown-up children end up on a different rung of the social class ladder than were their parents)
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intergenerational mobility
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movement up the social class ladder
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upward social mobility
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movement down the social ladder
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downward social mobility
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changes in society that cause large numbers of people to move up or down the class ladder
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structural mobility
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when large numbers of people move up and down the social class ladder but, on balance, the proportions of the social classes remain about the same
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exchange mobility
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the official measure of poverty; calculated to include those whose incomes are less than three times a low-cost food budget
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poverty line
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What is one of the strongest factors in poverty?
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race-ethnicity
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As age increases, does poverty also do the same?
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no - as age increases they are less likely than the general population to be poor
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the values and bevahiors of the poor "make them fundamentally different from other Americans, and that these factors are largely responsible for their continued long-term poverty"
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culture of poverty
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Why are people poor?
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Social structure - features of society deny some people access to education or learning job skills; Characterisitcs of Individuals - dropping out of school, having children in teen years, laziness, lack of intelligence
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the belief that anyone can get ahead if only he or she tries hard enough
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Horatio Alger Myth
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a group of people whose perceived physical characteristics distinguish it from another group
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race
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the attempt to destroy people because of their presumed race or ethnicity
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genocide?
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people who identify with one another on the basis of common ancestry and cultural heritage
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ethnicity/ethnic
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people who are singled out for unequal treatment and who regard themselves as objects of collective discrimination
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minority group
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the view that Americans from different backgrounds would blend into a sort of ethnic stew
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melting pot
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an action - unfair treatment directed against someone
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discrimination
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an attitude - prejudging of some sort, usually in a negative way
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prejudice
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negative treatment of a minority group that is built into a society's institutions
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institutional discrimination
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males' and females' unequal access to power, prestige, and property
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gender stratification
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Why are gender and age so significant?
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they are master statuses
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