Sociology

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sociology

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is the scientific study of social relations, behaviors and arrangements. Socialogy is one of the social sciences

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socialization

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is a life-long learning process, which inl. the process by which infants become adults

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Auguste Comte

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was the first person to use the term sociology in 1838. He was a French Philisopher. The early sociologist were concerned with the study of moral statistic,a nd the first among these was suicide rates

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Enuke Dyrjgeun

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stydued tge relationship between suicide adn social forces. He held that behavior should not be considered an individualistic matter, but in a broader social context. he argued that there is a link b etween the degree of social integration and suicide. He believed the greater the autonomy or independence of a category of people, the higher the suicide rate. He came up wiht the term Anomie, which is a floundering, or loss of purpose and direction people experience during periods of extreme social change.

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Max Weber

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theory was that social behavior can only be understood when the meanings of the people's actions are known, it is necessary to understand the attitudes, feelings and beliefs. he called this Verstehen, a German word for understanding

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verstehen

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german word for understanding

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Karl Marx

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focused on the struggle between social classes of people. Marx called owners of the means of production the bourgeoisie adn the non-owners the proletariat. Marx believed that a social class was determined solely by economics

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W.E.B. Dubois

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researched conflict theory as it petained to racial prejudice in hopes of achieving justice for his race. He helped gound NAACP

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Charles Horton Cooley
George Herbert Mead

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studied the effects of symbols such as nods of the head, clinched fists, smiles , frowns, stares etc. as individual behaviors that influence group hehaviors. They also confounded the symbolic interactionist perspective. Cooley introduced the term looking glass self, meaning the process by which humans develop their sense of self

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Theory

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is an explanation that predicts how and why certain matters such as hehavior or actions are related

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macro

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means a broader based study of society as a whole. Sometimes referred to as functionalist, social evolutionary and conflict

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micro

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is a more nearly restricted to the study of smaller patterns of behavior pr perspectives. Sometimes referred to as rational choice or self-interest theories

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structural-functional

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is a theory that assumes society to be compromised fo a large complex system in which smaller units cooperate to attain stability and in which all elements have a responsibility for preserving society itself. Herbert Spencer correlated this theory . This is a Macro theory

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social conflict

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theorist hold that society is a complex system in which social changes evolves from some form of inequality. Ex of conflict theorist include Martiniau Addams, Marx, Dubois

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What did each theorist study:
Martineau:
Addams:
Marx:
Dubois:

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Martiniau studied slavery and gender
Adams studied immigrants
Marx studied the conflict between owners and workers
Dubois studied the plight of African Americans.
Social theorist are interested in how race, gender, class are related to the distribution of wealth and power. This is the Macro theory

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symbolic interactionists

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believe in the study of the way individuals respond to social events or settings. This is the Micro theory

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independent variable

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the cause

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dependant variable

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the consequences of a cause

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correlation

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is the relationship between multiple variable. When both variables raise that is a positive correlation. When they do the opposite of each other (one rising while the other falls) that is a negative correlation

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scattergrams

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is a graphic presentation of correlation

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sociogram

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is used to chart relationships within a group

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mean

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or average is derived by dividing the sum of 2 or more amounts by the # of such amounts.

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median

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is the middle # of a series

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There are four methods used in sociological research

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experimental (not often used), surveyd, observation and study of existing findings

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values

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refer to what society believes to be right and proper

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norms

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are rules by which human social behavior is influenced and governed

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laws

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are norms enacted and enforced through the governance of a society

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role

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is a collection of norms through which persons in a given position are expected to behave

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Erving Goffman

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believes that people have 2 roles, the front stage and backstage. The front stage is the predominant stage EX. teacher is class and her backstage would be in a teachers meeting

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Group

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is 2 or more persons who share social relationships in common and who interact or behave according to the expectations fo other group members

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primary groups

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are comprised of theose who not only interact often, but who are extremely close through great awareness of other group members and who have strong emotional feeling that untie them with others in the group(such as a family)

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secondary groups

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are those with common interactive behavior and expectations, but whose members are not sicially intimate as primary groups (such as a bowling team)

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formal groups

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are large secondary groups established to attain a specific goal (such as a corportation, universities, and govt units). Formal groups may be 3 different kinds of groups such as normative groups, coercive groups, and utilitarian groups

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normative groups

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religious organizations, political parties, and service clubs

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coercive groups

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prisons and mental institutes

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utilitarian groups

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large profit making companies

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aggregates

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are gatherings of people assembled by chance and for only a brief time

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deviance

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is a violation of norms

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Edwin H Sutherland

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proposed Differential Association Theory.; he argues that how we act is based upon how those around us want us to act

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Four social bonds between individuals and the groups

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attachments, investment, involvement, beliefs

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attachments

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relationships in which there is a stable, strong interaction between group members

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investment

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time and commitment through attachment

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involvement

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more one invest in conformity that less time and energy are available to engage in non-conformance

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beliefs

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internalization of norms

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anomie

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a condition of normlessness brought about by a lack of attachments

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Durkheim

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referred to rural villages as Moral Communities. He viewed moral communities as characterized by social integration which refers to the many attachments prevalent in the villages as well as by Moral integration which regers to the beliefs that provided for shared moral ideas leading to mutually accepted norms

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retribution

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an eye for an eye, the longest standing form of punishment for deviance

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deterrence

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as rationalization for punishment of non-conformists is based upon settign examples

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rehabilitation

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as justification for punishment is designed to reform non-conformists. Criminals are resocialized or taught to discard earlier behaviors and replace them with newly accepted ones

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social protection

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make the non-conformists incapable of repeating the same crime or committing other crimes (execution, incarceration or sterilization)

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labeling theory

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of deviance holds that most deviance results form having been labeled a deviant

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primary deviant

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is a person who had behaved such that people identify him as deviant

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secondary deviance

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is behavior exhibited as a reaction to having been identified as a deviant

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daniel Bell

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created the term ethnic succession, which means the use of organized crime as a means to escape poverty

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Agrarian

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means farming societies

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social change

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principally occurs via one or more of 3 sources: Discovery, invention, and diffusion

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discovery

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uncovering of new ideas of an exciting idea

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invention

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new ideas that effect social change

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diffusion

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spread of cultural elements from one society to another

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William F Ogburn

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used the term Cultural Lag to describe delays in social change between on part of society and another. (i.e.baby boom)

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Mass-Society theory

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postulates that modernization leads to big government, necessary to carry out matters that in simpler societies were handled within the family

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Class-Society Theory

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capitalism pool wealth in the hands of a few, the masses become less powerful

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modernization

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theory claims that tradition keeps poor nations poor

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social movements

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is any organization whose prupose is to effect soxial change or provent such a change (i.e. aids movement, women's rights, and racial equality)

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deprivation theory

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contends that some level of deprivation triggers peoples action

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mass-society theory

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people with no particular roots are drawn together for some personal or political reason.

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resource-mobilization theory

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the movements successes are limited by resources available to further the cause

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New Social Movement Theory

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holds that the recent movements have been more related to the quality of life than economic matters

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Social movements tend to evolve through 4 stages:

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emergence- generated by the percertion that something in society is asded and needs correcting
Coalescence- recruitment of supporters and development of policies and intended tactics
Bureaucratization- staff becomes more proessional with less emphasis on original leadershop
Decline- time at which movement loses its vigor

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socialization

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is a life long learnign process by which individuals become persons capable or more capable of participating in society

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differential socialization

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the process by which role definition with in the family or society causes member to be railed differently (royal family)

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anticipatory socialization

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this involves all socialization activities, from childhood that occur n rehearsal for future responsibilities (learning fathers trade)

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presentation of self and role performance

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used by Goffman means the way people attempt to create impressions of themselves in the minds fo others

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culture

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groups of people who share social relationships and a distinctive way of life. (culture is tied to society such that they do not exist separately)

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assimilation

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involves newcomers adjusting to the culture by which they find themselves surrounded

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accommodation

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involves being able to live with each others differences

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ethnocentrism

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William Graham Sumner is the tendency to believe that one's own culture is best

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cultural relativism

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involved viewing behaviors within a culture solely based on that culture

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Franz Boas put Cultural Determinism forth

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and that principle is based on the belief that regardless of how a particular culture originated, the culture is entirely determined by the behavior of its members

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Audience effect

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when the audience impacts our behavior

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co-action effect

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occurs when the action or inaction of others impacts the behavior of a subject

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$ theoretical perspectives have been used to study social interaction; symbolic interactionist, dramaturgy, ethnomethodologist adn social exchange

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Symbolic interactionist- people do not respond directly to there environment but rather to the attach meanings to matter in their environment and then reactaccorings to that meaning

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dramaturgy

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Goffman says prople paly roles much as actors in a play

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Ethnomethodologist

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focus on how people understand their social enviroment by using common sense to guide their social reality

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social exchange

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cost/benefit approach

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social stratifiaction

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mean layering of society

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classes

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are layers of societies usually known as poor, middle class and wealthy

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social mobility

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is when a person either movers up in a class (upward mobility)or down in a class(down mobility)

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achieved status

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a status that one earns

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ascribed status

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refers to the position in society derived by birth

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caste

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when it is impossible to alter one's status (caste society india)also can be called a closed system of stratification

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structural mobility

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when social mobility occurs as a result of a change in the distribution of various statutes within a society

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exchange mobility

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that which occurs when an upward or downward status change causes someone to exchange places with the persons being dislodged

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Karl Marx

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saw class distinction solely as an exonomic one. He believed ownership-determined class

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Max Weber

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Identified the classes as Class (property), status (prestige), and party (power)

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Gaetano Mosca

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proclaimed that societes must be sratified. He contended as rationale that: political organization is requisite to societies (meaning coordination and decision making for order in society), there will be inequalities of pwoer whenever the political organization exists, and those with power will exploit those with no or less power as a means to gain materail possessions

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Kingsley Davis
Wilbert E Moore

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functionalist- believe that society is a system of roles and that inequality is logically factored into such roles. They argue that some roles are simply more important than others

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social evolutionists

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believe that people constantly improve their culture until it becomes so complex that specialization is required to manage it

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conflict theorist

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perceives that societies are more stratified then necessary; hold 2 significant beliefs about stratification. They contend that since people function selfishly, people in positions to do so will take advantage of others. This they call exploitation. Second, conflict theorists believe that those able to do so will limit replace ability, or form a monopoly for their positions

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warfare

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became a by product of farm surplus

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race

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may be defined as a group with noticeable features such as skin, hair color, hair texture and shape of eyelids

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Gordon W Allport

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subscribes to the theory that status plays a major role in conflict between races and ethnic groups. He contends that relations between groups are dependent upon equality of status

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Dyadic power

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uneven percentages of male and female lead to this

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Robert Michaels

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who coined the term iron law of oligarchy, notes the bureaucratization of labor unions and socialist political parties. He contends that democratic organizations tend to become bureaucracies because members look for leadership and leaders wish to maintain the power and privileges attendant to their roles

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Pierre Bourdeieu

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calls benefits derived because of the presitge those benefits bestow are called cultural capital

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Structural-functionalist theorists

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developed the disengagement theory about aging. This theory holds that as people age, they slowly back away form selected activities and relinquish attendant social responsibilities

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symbolic interactionists

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believe that the more involved oldsters are in activities, the more fulfilling their lives will be, thus called the activity theory

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confluct theorist

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recognized that wealthy elderly enjoy better health care, security, and activity availability than do the poor

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social institutions

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are relatively stable, long term and structural frameworks that address matters that recurrently must be tended to

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family institute

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the basis is the nurturing of newborns and their socialization by those with close kinship

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polygamous

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the males are leaders of the kinship group, but in 2/3 of these families, the women managed to care and discipline of the children

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nuclear family

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a male and a female adult plus offspring, natural or adopted. Most humans become part of 2 nuclear families, the one they are born into is called the nuclear family of orientation, and the one created through marriage and chose is called the nuclear family of procreation or conjugal family

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extended families

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are composed of more than one adult couple in the family

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Functionalist

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believes the family to be the central institution in all societies

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conflict theorist

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speak more to what they term dysfunctional aspects of families

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William F Ogburn

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defined the 6 dominant family functions as : reproduction, protection, socialization, sexual behavior, affection and companionship and conferring social status

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Economy institutions

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are the systems of production, distrubution, and consumption of services and goods

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agricultural revolution

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brought about 4 significant changes: the advnace of agricultural technology, productive specializaiton, permanent villages and trade

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industrial revolution

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brought about 5 changes: new energy sources, factories, manufacturing and mass production, further specialization and wages

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complex economic institutions

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are comprised of 3 sectors: primary sector (predominant in preindustrial societies and underdeveloped nations, involved extracting resources from the environment), secondary sector (transforms the raw materials into manufactured goods), and the tertiary sector (involves services not goods)

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Political System Institution

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by which society distribute power and authority so decisions in the best interest of the societies can be made and enforced

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Monarchy

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is a form of govt wherein the power to rule is vested in a king or queen and remains in that one family form generation to generation

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democracy

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is characterized by power being exercised by the citizens though elections of representatives to carry out the will of the people

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authoritarianism

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is a governing mechanism whereby the people are given no say in how they are ruled

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totalitarianism

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is the strictest form of rule. It is characterized by an extreme central focus fo power whereby people's lives are thoroughly regulated

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Power elite

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is that the political power resides primarily in the wealthy and influential.

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C. Wright Mills

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calls the small group of govt., business and military leaders holding powerful positions of power elite

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Military Industrial Complex

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is the relationship between the military and arms manufacturers

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pluralist model

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supported by Robert Dahl, claims that political power in the US is dispersed among interest groups

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Functional Theorist

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perceive of education as an essential and desirable institution that augments the family role of socializing its youth

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conflict theorist

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believes that the way education is conducted in the US contributes to existing social inequalities. They also see the practice of tracking as contributing to the perception of social inequality. Higher education is viewed as a social necessity thatn educational requirement

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religion

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another Institute

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Emile Durkheim

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held that things are either scared (supernatural)or profane (outside the temple)

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religious pluralism

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many religions to choose from in a close proximity

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religious economy

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a condition where religions are free to market themselves to the population

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Max Weber

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defines churches (intellectualize religious teachings and restain emotions) and sects (thrive on emotionalism not intellectualism)

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richard Niebuhr

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espoused what is called the church-sect theory. He saw class conflict as the catalyst to cause the religious conflicts that have resulted in so many denominations today. He held that sects serve the lower class and churches serve the upper class

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Cults

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are religious movements toward a new religious tradition

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secularization

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is the process of becoming overly worldly at the expense fo stressing the importance and the presence of the super natural

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structural Functionalist

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theorist perceives medicine as composed of 3 aspects: health maintenance research and innovative/experimental health tx and social control

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conflict interaction

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theorist view medicine, and the need for medical attention as a matter of perception

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horticultural

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is the cultivation of plants

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pastoral

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is the domestication of animals

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social surplus

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is when one can feed themselves plus other families thus release peoples to work in other trades

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community

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used to describe certain relationships

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demography

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is the scientific study of population trends. It is the study of how fertility, mortality, and migration impact populations

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growth rate

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of the population is the net population change divided by the size of the population at the beginning of the year and the multiplying the result by 100

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Crude Birth Rate
crude Death Rate

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is attained by the total # of annual births or deaths by the total population at the beginnign of the year. They are called crude as they pertain to the total # not to the sexes

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fertility rates

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is derived by dividing the # of births by the # of females ages 15-44

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infant mortality

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rate means the # of deaths among children under the age one for each 1000 births durign the year. In 1998 it was 7.2

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life expectancy

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is the average # of years people in society live

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birth cohorts

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are all the people in a given population in a given time frame. These are essential to governmental planners

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Thomas Robert Malthus's

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was the first to offer a theory on the population change. He believed that the human drive for sex would grow population ultimately larger than food surplus. Although this never happened

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Kingsley Davis

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Demographic transition theory that replaced Malthus's theory. This is a theory that ties population patterns to a society's level of technology. This theory consists in 4 stages: preindustrial (stable pop), beginning of industrialization (birth rate remains high while death rates decrease), fully industrialized (birth and death rates drop), migration

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migration rate

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the difference between the # of persons entering and the # departing a society each year, per 1000 people in the population

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demographers

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study many applications of population changes. All related to fertility rates, mortality rates, and migration rates

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human ecologist

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study how people interrelate wihtin their physical space and environment. The interrelations within cities are called urban ecology

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Robert Park
Ernest Burgess

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2 early urban ecologists. Burgess developed concentric zone theory, based on land use in Chicago, wherin he saw the core of a city the central business district.

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process of succession

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or ethic succession is the replenishment of the transition zones by the culturally lowest status group. Burgess saw each succeeding outward circle representing increasing affluence

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C.D. Harris
Edward L Ullman

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multiple nuclei- i.e. shopping malls, industrial parks, financial centers and entertainment centers. All of which were place in many parts of society regardless fo concentric zones.

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Joel Garreau

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calls edge cities, thus a city and its suburbs a metropolis

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Megalopolis

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is when metropolitan areas grow together

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conflict theorist

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hold that urban developers often overlook social forces. Thus the poor are ignored

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SMSA

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stands for standard metropolitan statistical area

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Fixed rail metropolis

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means it grew around a railroad thus freeway metropolis means it grew around a freeway

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decentralized metropolis

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is comprised of enclaves

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index of dissimilarity

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indicates the racial segregation of a neighborhood

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Mills

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coined sociological imagination

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Comte

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Named sociology

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De Chanpneuf

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initiated and supervised the writing of the "compte"

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Quetelet

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the stability of Crime
society plays a role in shaping behavior
contributed "Homme Moyen"--average person

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Guerry

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researched educational effect on behavior
1833 book "Essai" which launched sociology

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Emile dURKHELM

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Had 1st sense of sociological imagination
high suicide rates reflect the weakness of the society not the individual
functionalist
anomie-social normalness

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Karl Marx

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1800 conducted th 1st open survey on english workers r/t conflict theory. stted:culture and social structures are created by the ruling class to serve their own interest
2 classes r/t production: Bourgeoise-owners, rich
Proliterariat- workers, poor
did have a middle class but predicted it to fail
Lumpenprolrtariat- bottom of society, social scum
Class consciousness- similar people in society that share comparable prospects and mutual interests and have a common class enemy

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Stratification according to Marx:

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class
status
party

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Weber- Dementions of stratification- siad Marx beliefs were simple and introduced 3 factors that influence stratification

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The 3 Ps
Property
Prestige
Power
Weber r/t status inconsistancy- people in a higher status group and lower in another will be frustrated and dissatisfied

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Weber linked capitalism

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calvinist doctrine of predestination

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Weber- Principle of Verstehen

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subjective beliefs that motivate people to act

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Lenski

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social eveolution theorist
Social evolutionary theory- the better adapted culture will survive the environment

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Dubois

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Founder of NAACP
analogy of circumstances of African Americans in Atlanta
Edited NAACP publication "Crisis"
conflict theorist

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Small

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founded 1st dept of sociology in USA...university of chicago
Founded "American Journal of Sociology"