Psyc 102 Midterm 1

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William Wundt

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opened first psychology lab in 1879

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Structuralism

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Employed by Edward Titchener --> used analysis of adult mind in terms of the simplest definable components

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Introspection

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Employed by Edward Titchener; act of self-reflection, reports of elements of sensory experiences. Con = unreliable because it required smart and verbal people. Also varies from person to person based on diff experiences

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Functionalism

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Employed by William James; looked at how mental processes enable us to adapt and survive (based on Charles Darwin's idea of evolution) believes that human behaviour and mind make up is all adaptive

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Behaviorism

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Employed by John Watson and B.F. Skinner. Describes psychology as the scientific study of observable behaviour. One of the two major psychology views during the 1960's

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Freudian Psychology

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Introduced by Sigmund Freud; describes behaviour as being impacted by emotional ties to past experiences and unconscious thoughts. One of the two major psychology views during the 1960's

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Humanistic Psychology

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Introduced by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Focused on the positive/negative impact of environmental pressures on growth potential, and the importance of needing love and being accepted.

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Cognitive Psychology

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Focused on mental processes, how our mind works, and retains info. Explored how our brain works during mental activity

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Contemporary definition of Psychology

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Science of behaviour and mental processes

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Nature vs. Nurture Debate (definition, conflict, contemporary view)

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Definition = the debate on whether or not psychological development occurs as a result of genetics or experiences. Contemporary view = Development is affected by the interaction of nature (genetics) and nurture (experience)

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3 levels of analysis (definition)

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Levels of analytical perspectives that are all related. Provide different view on certain behaviour and mental processes.

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3 levels of analysis (list and examples)

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1. Biology Factors: adaptive traits, hormonal influences

2. Social Factors: presence of others, cultural/societal expectations

3. Psychological Factors: learned fears and expectations, emotional responses

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Biopsychosocial Approach

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Considers bio/social/psycho factors when looking at mental processes/behaviour

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Counselling Psychology

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discipline of psychology assisting people with problems in living; working toward wellbeing (marriage, schooling, work). Administers and interprets tests, provide counselling and therapy, and conducting basic and applied research

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Clinical Psychology

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assisting people with mental, emotional, and behaviour disorders. Branch of Psychology. Administers and interprets tests, provide counselling and therapy, and conducting basic and applied research

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Psychiatry

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Branch of medicine (medical doctors). Ability to prescribe drugs and treat physical causes of psychological disorders.

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Positive Psychology

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scientific study of human functioning. Focuses on positive emotions, character traits, and enabling institutions. Promoting these factors in order for individuals to thrive

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Community Psychology

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branch of psychology studying how people interact with their social environments, and how social institutions affect individuals and groups

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Critical thinking

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not blinding accepting a fact. Not coming to a satisfactory conclusion until asking questions. Being skeptical but not cynical, and a fundamental scientific process and attitude

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Hindsight bias

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"I knew it all along!" the tendency to believe that they would have foreseen the predictable outcome/result

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Theory

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Statement explaining with principles that organize observations and predicts behaviours/events

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Hypothesis

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testable prediction, implied by a theory

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Operational Definitions

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Used as a means to check bias in research. Defines research procedure and variables and concepts

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Replication

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repetition of essence of a research study with different participants in different situations. Used to see if the findings were not found by fluke

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Case study

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one type of descriptive research methods. Examination of one individual in depth. Pro = interesting, gives indication as to why something happens, as to what went on/is going on Con = difficult to generalize to whole population, no hypotheses generated so no significant tests

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Naturalistic Observation

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Other type of descriptive research method. Observation of subject in natural setting without any manipulation/interaction.

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Survey

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Last type of descriptive research method; gaining a public understanding of a subject by asking public questions. Pro = gives public insight into subject Con = doesn't tell us how to change it, or why is happens

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Population

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all cases in a group being studied. samples may be drawn from entire population

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Correlation

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DOES NOT EQUAL CAUSATION!!!!!! Measure of the extent to which two factors vary together, and how well either factor predicts the other

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Correlation Coefficient

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Statistical index of the relationship between two factors.

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scatter plot

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graphed cluster of dots representing values of two variables. Slope = direction of relationship. Amount of scatter suggests strength of correlation

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experimental group

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group in an experiment exposed to the treatment

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experiment

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research method in which investigator manipulates one or more factors (independent variables) to observe the effect on a specific behaviour/mental process (dependent variable).

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Random Assignment

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Assigning participants to different groups in experiment based on chance in order to eliminate bias and to counter all confounding variables

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control group

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group not receiving treatment in an experiment. Serves as a comparison for evaluating effect of treatment

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Double Blind Procedure

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in which the research participants and staff do not know who receives the placebo and who receives treatment

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placebo effect

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experimental results affected by the knowledge of the participants receiving treatment, knowing there will be an effect

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independent variable

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factors in an experiment that are manipulated by the experimenter

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dependent variable

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factors in an experiment that is affected by the change in the dependent variable. often the centre of interest in the experiment

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confounding variable

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all other factors not being manipulated by experimenter. All occur simultaneously in natural setting

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mode

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the most frequently occurring score in statistics

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mean

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average distribution

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median

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middle score in a distribution

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range

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gap between lowest and highest scores

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standard deviation

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computed measure of how much scores vary around mean score

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statistical significance

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statistical statement of how likely it is that an obtained result occurred by chance ex. large difference between two reliable sample averages. p < .01 = 99% certain the correlation is not by chance. Statistically significant if there is LESS than a 5% difference (p<.05)

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scientific method

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paired with critical thinking. formulated explanations on how things work.
1. integrated set of principles (theories)
2. organizes observations (theories)
3. make testable predictions (hypothesis)

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null hypothesis

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reverse of hypothesis. Example:
Hypothesis: all cows have four legs

Null: not all cows have four legs

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Give examples of the different hypotheses that can be drawn from this single hypothesis:
"there is a difference between how many people want to use connect or piazza"

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1. more people like to use connect

2. more people like to use piazza

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Research process

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1. Theories --> to explain

2. Hypothesis --> to predict

3. Research --> to test

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longitudinal analysis

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observing two variables at 1 time, and allowing time to pass. After certain time has passed, experimenters look at how variable 1 affected variable 2. Gives us better indication of causality

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how to test causation

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manipulate one variable, control all others via random assigning and control groups

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3 major issues in developmental psychology

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1. nature vs. nurture: does the cognitive development of an individual depend on their genes or on the experiences the individual goes through?

2. continuity and stages: does development occur as a gradual process or is it more abrupt and segmental such as in stages

3. stability and change: which of our traits persist through life? how do we change as we age?

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habituation

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the process in which an infant is exposed to the same stimulant repeatedly and thus becomes bored of the familiar with the audio/visual stimulus

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what does habituation tell us?

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what babies see, hear, smell, think based on their responsiveness to the repeated stimulus. They generate a weakened response when exposure to the same stimulus increases

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maturation

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orderly sequence of biological growth. standing before walking, nouns before adjectives

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what does standard deviation tell us?

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huge range between scores = increased SD

small range between scores = decreased SD

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cognitive schemas

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mind map in which concepts are added, expanded, and connected as you grow

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assimilation

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fitting new experiences into our current schema; child will understand that library = place with lots of books = will think that book store = library

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accomodation

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adjustment/expanding of schema for new experience. New connections are made. ex. bookstore = to buy books, library = to borrow books

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Piaget's Developmental Theory

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children build schemas through experiences/interaction with world.
Brain experiences change and accommodates that change to create stability (change occurs in 4 stages: sensorimotor stage, preoperational stage, concrete operational stage, and formal operational stage)

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Sensorimotor stage

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BIRTH - AGE 2

1. lack object permanence: unsure of what happens to object when they leave their eyesight (Piaget believes this will develop at around 8 months)

2. under go habituation: lose interest to familiar repeated stimulus

3. builds schemas through senses: looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, grasping

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Preoperational stage

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AGE 2 - AGE 6/7

1. cannot perform mental operations such as imagining/seeing an action and mentally reversing it

2. Lack principle of conservation; believe that quantity changes when shape changes

3. egocentric; unable to understand/perceive things from another's perspectives

4. Lack theory of mind; unable to interpret other's mental state, feelings, and perceptions

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Concrete operational stage

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AGE 7 - AGE 11

1. Grasped conservation with physical objects. Now believes that change in form does not mean change in quantity

2. able to comprehend mathematical transformations and conservation

3. able to reverse mathematical questions instantly

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Formal operational stage

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AGE 12 - ADULTHOOD

1. reasoning expands to abstract thinking

2. can imagine realties and symbols

3. ability to deduce consequences, ponder hypothetical propositions (systematic reasoning)

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Contemporary Ideas on Developmental Psychology

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1. Development is more continual than Piaget thought

2. Developmental milestones often occurred earlier than Piaget thought

3. ideas are adapted to accomodate new findings

4. important cognitive abilities were missed by piaget: ex. babies are able to grasp concept of simple math (sensorimotor), children are able to think symbolically at age 3 (preoperational), etc.

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Lev Vygotsky's Scaffolding

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studied how children think and learn. believed mind develops through interaction with the social environment (ex. mentoring and new words from parents to child = temporary scaffold from which children can step to higher levels of thinking. Focused on the language as social mentoring

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stranger anxiety

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develops at about 8 months, in which infants prefer familiar faces and voices (after object permanence and child becomes mobile). Occurs bc infants have a schema for familiar faces and thus cry and reach for familiar faces when greeted by a stranger - unable to accomodate new face

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origins of attachment

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survival impulse to cry when separated with parents, and to smile and hug when reunited with parent - keeps infant close to caregiver (those who are familiar and comfortable)

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what creates intense attachment and bond between mother and child

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contact and touch - soothes or arouses and reassures child when distressed

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imprinting vs. attachment

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imprinting: certain animals form attachments during a critical period very early in life, often will follow what they are mentally attached to for the rest of their life or until maturity (irreversible)

attachment: become attached to what they know and what they're comfortable with (infants). become emotionally tied to that object/place/person and often will want to experience it over again - signal for safety. it is not permanent as the child grows they will form new attachments

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secure attachment

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contact/presence of familiar and attached caregiver keeps child at ease in unfamiliar situations. child becomes distressed when caregiver leaves but is calmed when caregiver returns. often raised by sensitive, responsive mothers. Later on child will have higher self esteem, more trusting in relationships, longer relationships, seeking more cross-group friendships,etc.

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insecure attachement

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infant is not comfortable in unfamiliar situation despite caregiver being present - more avoidant in times of stress. often raised by insensitive, unresponsive mothers. Does not use mother as secure base when problems arise. later on child will dream of rejection, have more social anxiety, and will be less trusting

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autism

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inability to fully develop theory of mind; unable to infer other's feelings and perspectives

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centration

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ability to focus only on one thing at a time. typical of infants less than 4 years old. Why they cannot grasp principle of conservation

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decentration

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ability to focus on both quantity and shape (more than one thing). Children in concrete operational stage reason through decentration and thus are able to grasp conservation

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attachment

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strong innate emotional bond that can change over time. bond serves as secure base and refuge when problems arise

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drive-reduction theory

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employed by john watson. believes that infant behaviour is driven by the need to survive - crying when hungry - would rather be fed as opposed to comforted. dominant view in 1950-60's

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attachment theory

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states that infants will prefer nurturing in times of distress despite the cause of distress bc parents serve as base. Example: Harlow's monkeys more attached to cloth mother representing warmth, as opposed to feeding mother representing drive-reduction theory. attachment can be fostered

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Sir Francis Galton

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1. first to measure intelligence

2. darwin's cousin - believed that intelligence is hereditary

3. believed intelligence is cultivated through eugenics (selective breeding of diff people to create superhuman)

4. first to measure statistical tests

5. thought intelligence is correlated with physical skills

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Meade Bache

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1. used auditory measures, visual measures, and electric shocks to survey the reaction speed of Caucasians, indians, and africans.

2. caucasians responded slower = Bache thought this was because they undergo more abstract thinking and have much more complex mental processes thus working at a slower pace

3. indians and africans responded faster = Bache thought this was because they have more primal and animal-like reflexes (less "evolved" = less intelligent)

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Binet

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1. father of modern intelligent test

2. On nurture side of nature vs. nurture debate 3. developed idea of mental age - used this to measure performance and thus intelligence. looked at average ability for certain age groups.

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Terman

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1. adapted Binet's tests to kids in California, and because they are less "intelligent" he created the Stanford Binet Intelligence Test (american version of Binet's intelligence test)

2. Stanford-Binet used to argue that kids are naturally intelligent/unintelligent

3. Created term gifted, and believed in eugenics

4. created longest longitudinal study until today

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William Stern

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1. developed Intelligence Quotient (IQ) from Stanford Binet tests

2. Quantified how intelligent an individual is

mental age/chronological age x 100

3. original IQ works well for children, but not for adults

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Contemporary IQ tests

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represent performance relative to the average performance of others the same age. Average performance for a given age is equal to 100.

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Charles Spearman

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1. spearman's correlation coefficient - not a continuous skill; able to look between two categories/sets of data and measures correlation between them. Saw correlation between intelligent children being smart in all types of abilities.

2. Lead him to believe there is a general intelligence - underlies specific mental abilities and is therefore measured by every task on an intelligence test

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Thurstone

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1. came up with 7 groups of mental abilities

2. did not rank people on a single scale of general aptitude

3. but found that most people who scored well in one group, scored well in the other - thus showing further evidence that there is a general intelligence

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Wechsler

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1. Created Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (modern IQ tests)

2. most widely used tests - comprised of different sub-tests

3. benefits: easy to administer, easiest to interpret

4. fell on nurture side of debate - if you have deficiency, there are means of tests to help develop your intelligence

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Who believed intelligence = single entity?

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Binet, Spearman*, Terman
*believed that there are multiple intelligences, but they all form one general intelligence

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Who believed intelligence as multiple facets?

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Wechsler, Thurstone, Spearman*

*believed that there are multiple intelligences, but they all form one general intelligence

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Howard Gardner

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1. views intelligence as multiple abilities that come in different packages

2. came up with 8 different intelligences (now a 9th)

3. Con = no measures for everyone, difficult to test and compare (no standardized measure)

Example: those with savant syndrome will score low because they only excel in one group

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Sternberg

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1. more to success than traditional intelligence, and Gardner's 8 intelligences

2. triarchic theory of: analytical, creative, and practical

3. believed they are all independent of one another, but also correlate

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Sternberg's three intelligences

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1. analytical: assessed by intelligence tests - present well defined problems having a single right answer. predict school grades reasonably well

2. creative: demonstrated in reacting adaptively to situations and generating ideas

3. practical: required for everyday tasks - depends on situation. ex. managerial success = depends on ability to manage oneself, one's tasks, and other people

pro: reliably measured

cons: less independent (actually share underlying g factor)

additional testing needed to find out whether they reliably predict success

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Gardner's multiple intelligences

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abilities best categorized into eight independent intelligences.

pro: intelligence viewed as more than just verbal and mathematical skills. views other abilities equally important

con: unclear whether some of these intelligences are actually abilities or talents

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Thurstone's primary mental abilities

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Intelligence may be broken down into 7 factors: word fluency, verbal comprehension, spatial ability, perceptual speed, numerical ability, inductive reasoning and memory.

pro: single g intelligence not as informative as scores for primary mental intelligences

con: show tendency to cluster, revealing g factor

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Spearman's general intelligence

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basic intelligence predicts our abilities in varied academic areas.

pro: different abilities do have tendency to correlate

con: too diverse to be summed up by g factor

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emotional intelligence

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ability to perceive, understand, manage, and use emotions

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peter salovey

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developed emotional intelligence from social intelligence

1. perceiving emotions (recognizing them in faces)

2. understanding emotions (to predict and how they change and blend)

3. managing emotions (to know how to express them in varied situations)

4. using emotions (for creative and adaptive thinking)

con: stretches intelligence definition too far

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emotionally intelligent people are

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socially and self-aware, have better high quality friendships, better high school grades, better at coping with university exams

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WAIS

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most widely used intelligent test - yields overall intelligence score as well as separate scores for other abilities (eg. verbal comprehension, perceptual organization, working memory, etc.)

pro: easy to administer, easy to interpret

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Is Intelligence stable?

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intelligence remains stable throughout life - slower processing does not equal less intelligence. Proven by longitudinal studies (cross-sectional studies compare age groups from different time periods which heavily affects intelligence) BUT a) longitudinal studies are biased because most people who survive are only the healthy and wealthy and b) intelligence is not a single trait, and therefore longitudinal studies must account for all types of intelligence

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crystallized intelligence

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our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills; increases with age.

stable/increasing

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fluid intelligence

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our ability to reason speedily and abstractedly; decreases during late adulthood

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What happens to intelligence with age?

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we lose the ability to recall memories and processing speed but we gain vocabulary and knowledge.

decisions become less distorted by negative emotions, and show increased social reasoning

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hertiability

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the proportion of variation among individuals that we can attribute to genes. May vary, depending on the range of populations and environments studied. Ranges from 50-80%

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genes for intelligence?

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polygenetic - specific gene variations together; combination of many genes

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what effect does poverty and extreme environmental conditions have on intelligence? if infants are exposed to enriched environments, will they become more intelligent?

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it will put their cognitive development to a halt. Babies will not learn as fast, or all of the important developmental milestones that normally occur in a healthy baby's childhood. This is caused by malnutrition, lack of emotional bonds with humans, lack of attention, lack of exposure to language, etc. Nurturing can reverse this effect, but enriching the environment so as to over nurture does nothing to the intelligence of the child