Physiology Lab Exam #2

Front 1

1. What is the difference between malignant melanoma, vitilogo, and a nevus?

Back 1

Malignant melanoma is cancer of melanocytes. Most dangerous. 5% of skin cancers metastasizes. Vitilogo is malfunction of melanocytes where they do not produce pigment. Mole/nevus is overgrowth of melanocytes, occurs with problems metabolizing sugar.

Front 2

2. List the layers of the epidermis and a function of each layer.

Back 2

(Deepest to most superficial)

Stratum Basale aka Stratum Germinativum - formation of new epidermal cells

Stratum Spinosum for strength and flexibility

Stratum Granulosum - apoptosis occurs here

Stratum Lucidum - layer of dead keratinocytes

Stratum Corneum is dead keratinocytes, this layer sheds and is replaced by deeper layers

Front 3

3. Which layer of skin is damaged in a sun-burn? Skin often peels in layers when a person has been burned by the sun. Why do you think the skin peels this way? Explain your answer.

Back 3

1st degree burns is only he epidermis damaged (sun burn)

Front 4

4. In a deep, bleeding wound, the epidermis was sutured only. Why might this post a future problem?

Back 4

Healing occurs bottom up, risk for abcess

Front 5

5. John has squamous cell carcinoma. Describe how you would inspect the lesion to determine the extent of his cancer (how do you assess a skin lesion)? What diagnostic procedure is required in order to make a definitive diagnosis of skin cancer?

Back 5

Squamous cell carcinoma - keratinocytes of stratum spinosum, grows fast and metastisizes to regional lymph nodes. Skin lesions are assessed with ABCD Rule (Asymmetry - the sides do not match; Border irregularity - borders not smooth but have indentations; Color - Pigmented spot contains areas of different colors; Diameter spot is larger than 6 mm in diameter (size of pencil eraser). Diagnostic procedure would be a biopsy/needle or biopsy/skin graft

Front 6

6. Sara, 42 year old, developed hives (urticaria) after eating shell fish. She has never has this condition before. She is experiencing severe itching and you notice welts or red "bumps" all over her skin. She is also experiencing an itchy throat and slight tingling in her jaw. Her vitals are as follows: blood pressure: 130/80, pulse 104, respiration 26, temperature 102 degrees. She is treated with a topical cream that she rubs over her body twice a day and Benadryl taken orally once a day. Create SOAP notes for this patient.

Back 6

Subjective: Sara is experiencing severe itching after eating shell-fish, itchy throat and slight tingling in her jaw, never had this before

Objective: blood pressure 130/80, pulse 104, respiration 26, temperature 102 degrees, welt or red "bumps"

Assessment: diagnosis of hives (urticaria)

Plan: treated with topical cream that she rubs over body twice a day and Benadryl taken orally once a day

Front 7

7. List 3 functions of the bones.

Back 7

Supporting and protecting soft tissues, Attachment site for muscles making movement possible, Storage of the minerals, Calcium and Phosphate - mineral homeostasis, Blood cell production occurs in red bone marrow (hemopoiesis), Energy Storage in yellow bone marrow

Front 8

8. Explain what happens in osteoporosis as it relates to osteoblast and osteoclast activity. Considering how blood calcium levels relate to bone health, could the diagnosis result from an excess release of parathyroid hormone (PTH) and/or calcitonin? Explain your answer.

Back 8

Bones and Homeostasis. Bone resorption is accomplished by osteoclasts. Bone deposition occurs by osteoblasts. Bone remodeling occurs in injured bone. Note when bone breaking happens faster than bone making it is called osteoporosis. Hormonal influences, parathyroid hormone (PTH) secreted if calcium levels falls. PTH gene turned on and more PTH secreted from gland. Osteoclast activity increased, kidney retains calcium and produces calcitrol. Calcitonin hormone secreted from parafollicular cells in thyroid if calcium blood levels act too high, inhibits osteoclast activity, increases bone formation by osteoblasts.

Front 9

9. If the patient's blood calcium level is 4.5 mg/dl, what types of signs and symptoms might this patient experience? Give 2 different ways a clinician can alter blood calcium levels in the body. Explain your answer.

Back 9

Calcium ions involved with many body systems (nerve & muscle cell function, blood clotting enzyme function in many biochemical reactions). Normal calcium level is 9-11, small changes in blood level can be deadly, cardiac and respiratory arrest can occur with abnormal levels. Depression, less energy, IV calcium can be given with vitamin D, hormones PTH would be given as well.

Front 10

10. What is the difference between an epiphyseal plate and an epiphyseal line? Explain how bone growth is affected by human growth hormone (HGH) after the epiphyseal plate has become the epiphyseal line.

Back 10

Epiphyseal plate - a layer of hyaline cartilage inside metaphysis. Epiphyseal line - cartilage in epiphyseal plate is replaced by bone. Epiphyseal plate stimulated by HGH, epiphyseal plate that results in mitosis and bone growth when epiphyseal plate closes, it is replaced by bone, the epiphyseal line appears and indicates the bone has completed its growth in length.

Front 11

11. What are some nutritional benefits of Vitamin D? How much sun do you need to make an adequate amount of vitamin D? How does Vitamin D intake relate to blood calcium levels in the body?

Back 11

At least 15 minutes of sunlight to make adequate Vitamin D. Vitamin D transports calcium across the small intestine lining and helps with calcium absorption.

Front 12

12. What is a compound fracture and given an example as to how a compound fracture might occur. Can this type of fracture be repaired by a closed reduction? Explain.

Back 12

Compound fracture (open) is broken bone that protrudes through skin. Osteoporosis is most common cause of pathological fracture if someone falls.

Front 13

13. List one similarity and one different between spongy and compact bone?

Back 13

Compact bone tissue is dense tissue that has microscopic structure called osteon. There are no true osteons in spongy bone.

Front 14

14. Jimmy's horse panicked due to a loud sound. The horse stepped on his leg. He now has a broken bone and damaged cartilage. Which will heal faster, the bone or the cartilage? Explain your answer.

Back 14

Bone will heal faster because bone has blood flowing through it and is partly calcium which we get in our diets such as MILK with calcium, while cartilage formed from another form of material. Bone has blood supply and cartilage does not or at least not a constant and consistent blood supply. Bone has direct blood supply. Cartilage get blood supply via diffusion.

Front 15

15. What are the rules of nine? If a person burned their lower extremities (ventral and dorsal side) and their inguinal region, what percent of the body did they burn?

Back 15

9 x 4 = 36 + 1 = 37%

Front 16

16. If a bone breaks due to an injury, why is it necessary for the broken bone to be put back into the correct position before casting? Explain your answer.

Back 16

A cast is essentially a big, hard bandage that keeps a bone from moving during the healing process. It generally has two layers - a soft layer of padding that rests against the skin and a hard outer layer that protects the bone. For displaced fractures, the bone will need to be set or realigned before a cast is put on so that it will heal in a straighter position.

Front 17

17. Interpret the following phrase, "bone remodeling occurs due to the mechanical stress placed on the bone." Explain your answer.

Back 17

Bone remodeling is a continuous process or bone resorption and formation for the purpose of maintaining normal bone mass. Normal bone mass indicates healthy bones that are strong and free from problems like osteoporosis. This process goes on inside the human body as long as the person is living cells that play important roles in it are osteoclasts, which are responsible for bone resorption, osteoblasts, which are vital in the formation of bones, and osteocytes, which send the signals that bones are being exposed to stress or injury.

Front 18

18. What are bone spurs and how do they develop?

Back 18

Bone spurs (osteophyte) is a bony growth formed on normal bone. Most people think of something sharp when they think of a "spur", but bone spurs is just extra bone. Its usually smooth, but it can cause wear and tear or pain if it presses or rubs on other bones or soft tissues such as ligaments, tendons, or nerves in the body common places for bone spurs include the spine, shoulders, hands, hips, knees, and feet

Front 19

19. If a person has 2nd degree burn? The most superficial burned is?

Back 19

Epidermis

Front 20

20. Where is osteon found?

Back 20

Osteon is only found in compact bone.

Front 21

21. What are signs of a successful brain surgery that can be found on the skull thousands of years ago? How can we tell that a person did not die from surgery?

Back 21

It's a scar built bone has fused over it, the bone has healed

Front 22

1. Explain the Contraction Cycle.

Back 22

Contraction Cycle

Cross bridge attachment - myosin is attracted to the myosin binding site on actin.

Power stroke is myosin head binds, pulls actin toward the center of the sarcomere, ADP and P, released from myosin head

Cross bridge detachment - new ATP molecule binds to myosin, myosin released from actin.

Return of myosin head to position - hydrolysis of ATP gives the energy needed to return myosin to its normal position.

Front 23

2. What is the function of the sarcomere of the skeletal muscle?

Back 23

Sarcomere is doing the work, its the functional unit of a muscle, region between two consecutive Z lines. Z discs/ line separates sarcomeres from each other. A bands - dark bands (overlap of actin & myosin), I band - light bands (actin only), H zone is only visible in relaxed muscle fibers, myosin only, M line is the middle of the sarcomere. Myofilaments of Muscles: Myosin thick protein filament and Actin is thin protein filament

Front 24

3. What is the purpose of synovial fluid in a joint? What will happen if this fluid is drastically decreased in the patellar region? What happens when the articular cartilage is worn away at this location? What is this disease process called? It it an inflammatory condition? Explain your answers.

Back 24

Synovial membranes line fibrous capsules surrounding joints. Synovial fluid lubricates and cushions the joints. Movable joints are called synovial joints. If fluid is drastically decreased in the patellar region, there will be discomfort with bone rubbing against each other. Osteoarthritis occurs when articular cartilage is worn away. NOT an inflammatory condition. Rheumatoid arthritis is an inflammatory response.

Front 25

4. Regarding muscle function, what type of muscle produces peristalsis? What type is responsible for maintaining posture?

Back 25

Smooth muscle produces peristalsis. and Skeletal muscle is responsible for maintaining posture.

Front 26

5. List three properties and function of muscles.

Back 26

Functions of Muscles (Producing movement responsible for locomotion and manipulation, maintaining posture by constantly making tiny adjustments to help maintain posture, stabilizing joints by reinforcing joint stability, and generating heat by contractions of releasing heat) Properties of Muscles (excitability/irritability is the ability to receive or respond to a stimulus, contractility is the ability to shorten forcibly when stimulated, extensibility is ability to stretch, elasticity is the ability to resume resting length after being stretched)

Front 27

6. What is the neuromuscular junction (NMJ)?

Back 27

Neuromuscular Junction (NMJ) is the nerve muscle junction - myoneural junction - end of axon near the surface of a muscle fiber at its motor end plate region (remain separated by synaptic cleft or gap)

Front 28

7. Explain the difference between a tic and spasm.

Back 28

Spasm is involuntary sustained (stays in one place) muscle contraction of a single muscle in a large group of muscles. Tic is a spasmodic Twitch made involuntary by a voluntary muscle (for people who are heavily medicated or coming off drugs, problem with neurotransmitters, continuous movement)

Front 29

8. What is the function of the Ca-ATPase pump in skeletal muscles? What would happen if the pump did not function properly? Would the calcium levels in the sarcoplasm increase or decrease as it relates to the function of the Ca-ATPase pump? Explain.

Back 29

When Calcium goes back to the sarcoplasm reticulum, if pump doesn't work, get calcium stones. Low to high concentration, rolling ball up hill, need ATP. If stones develop, medicate to get rid of them to jump start Ca-ATPase pump.

Front 30

9. What is the source of energy that "pushes" the neurotransmitter (NT) toward the axon terminal? Explain your answer.

Back 30

Sodium

Front 31

10. Explain why a muscle needs a constant nerve and blood supply. What would happen if blood flow and the electrical signal to a muscle were drastically reduced? What type of signs and symptoms might this patient experience?

Back 31

Blood vessels carry sodium and calcium and neurotransmitter, muscles would atrophy if no nerve/blood supply, signs and symptoms include experiencing constipation, muscles not contracting, can't move food, and can't defecate.

Front 32

11. What is the difference between muscular hypertrophy, hyperplasia and atrophy? Give an example of how a patient can develop hypertropy and atrophy of a muscle.

Back 32

Muscular hypertophy is enlargement of muscle fiber. Muscular hyperplasia increases in the number of muscle fibers. Muscular atrophy is wasting of muscle fibers. Muscle activity is dependent on a continuous nerve and blood supply. Patient can develop muscular hypertrophy by taking steroids and lifting weights galore. Patient can develop muscular atrophy by lack of movement, in a coma, paralysis, stroke, etc.

Front 33

12. A patient is complaining of chest pain. His creatine kinase (CK) level of 200 U/L (see the appendix for lab values) correlates with what diagnosis? Why did the CK levels become elevated in the blood stream? Explain your answers.

Back 33

CK should be in muscle to help use CK and CK + ADP = ATP to replenish ATP, if CK elevated in blood stream and muscle damage (skeletal or cardiac damage)

Front 34

13. How does the chemical level, cellular level and tissue level contribute to the overall function of the muscular system? How does the endocrine, circulatory and nervous system affect the activity of the muscular system? Give a brief explanation for each.

Back 34

Muscular System Allows manipulation of the environment, locomotion, and facial expression. Maintains posture, and produces heat.

Front 35

14. Name 2 differences between the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral nervous system (PNS).

Back 35

Parasympathetic is mainly inhibitory except in GI, located in cranial and sacral division (CN 3, 7, 9, 10)

Sympathetic is mainly excitatory except in GI, located in the thorax and lumbar region

Front 36

15. Give three body responses that distinguish the sympathetic nervous system from the parasympathetic nervous system activity. Explain your answers.

Back 36

General body responses for sympathetic nervous system, fight or flight response, body speeds up, tenses up, becomes more alert. Functions not critical to survival shut down. Neuron pathway is very short neurons, faster system, increases contraction, heart rate. Parasympathetic nervous system counterbalance, restores body to state of calm; longer pathways, slower system, decreases heart rate

Front 37

16. Explain the difference between an isotonic and an isometric exercise. Give a example of each type. Which one can result in muscle tone?

Back 37

Isotonic Contraction - muscle changes in length, concentric muscles shorten and does work (picking up a book)

Eccentric muscle contracts as it lengthens coordination, posture.

Isometric contraction muscle does not change length while tension continues to increase. When toning a muscle tone, use both isotonic and isometric.

Example of each:

Isotonic - 10 lb. dumbell and hold into in hand and light up.

Isometric puts hands together and presses together to work out biceps.

Isotonic causes hypertrophy of muscles.

Front 38

17. Explain the pathway that occurs when a pain sensation is felt in the big toe of the left foot. Include the neural pathway fro the PNS to the CNS. Also include the motor pathway to the effector.

Back 38

Peripheral Nervous System

Sensory (Afferent) conveys impulses from sensory receptors to CNS. Afferent (sensory neurons)

Motor (Efferent) convey impulses away from CNS to periphery. Efferent (motor) neurons

Stimulus receptor/skin to the sensory neuron (afferent) to the spinal cord/ control center to the motor neuron (efferent) to the effector

Front 39

18. A patient is taking a vitamin D and calcium supplement with each morning meal because she was diagnosed with brittle bones. Explain how these supplements can affect her bones.

Back 39

When this patient takes calcium and vitamin D, when calcium taken in GI tract, the vitamin D assist in absorbing Calcium into the blood and calcium is distributed to the heart for contractions.

Front 40

19. Micheal was playing racquetball with his friends. After playing for a continuous 5 hours, he realized he sprained his wrist. He is now experiencing pain in his right wrist and right ankle. Blood pressure 120/80, temp 98.7, respiration rate 16, pulse 76. He has pain when trying to invert his right wrist. His pain level is 7/10 (10 is severe pain). You prescribe a pain reliever and tell him to follow up in 3 days for possible x-rays if the pain persists. Create SOAP notes for this patient.

Back 40

Subjective: Micheal playing racquet ball with his friends, after playing for 5 hours, he sprained his right wrist and experiencing pain in right wrist and ankle.

Objective: Vitals temperature 98.7, pulse 76, respiration 16, blood pressure 120/80 and pain when right wrist inverted 7/10, severe pain.

Assessment: ?????

Plan: Tell him to take pain reliever, follow up in 3 days if pain persist and will do possible x-ray

Front 41

20. Maureen was brought to your clinic because her mom suspects she had a stroke. You notice that she has a drooping right eyelid and problems speaking. Vitals Blood pressure 160/90, temp 98.6, respiration 25, pulse 66. You suspect that something is wrong so you run blood test in your office. Once you get the results you make a referral to a specialist. The results from the specialist indicate that she has a condition called Bell's palsy (paralysis of facial muscles). Create SOAP notes for this patient.

Back 41

Subjective: Maureen's mother suspects that Maureen had a stroke

Objective: Clinician observed drooping right eyelid, problems speaking, vitals blood pressure 160/90, temperature 98.6, respiration 25, pulse 66

Assessment: Diagnosis of Bell's Palsy (paralysis of facial muscles)

Plan: Referral to specialist

Front 42

21. What is the difference between a muscle sprain and a muscle strain? Explain your answer.

Back 42

A sprain is a stretching or tearing of ligaments — the tough bands of fibrous tissue that connect two bones together in your joints. The most common location for a sprain is in your ankle. A strain is a stretching or tearing of muscle or tendon. A tendon is a fibrous cord of tissue that connects muscles to bones.

Front 43

22. If left lower extremity burned? How much percent of body burned?

Back 43

18%

Front 44

1. Explain 1st order, 2nd order, and 3rd order neurons. Which one decussates?

Back 44

1st order neuron is impulse from somatic sensory receptors to spinal cord or brain stem, PNS to CNS

2nd order neuron is impulse from brain stem or spinal cord to thalamus, CNS to thalamus

3rd order neuron is from thalamus to cerebral cortex

Decussate is crossing over happens in 2nd order neurons, happens in brain stem or spinal cord before reaching the thalamus. NOTE: motor tracts can also decussate at second order

Front 45

2. If a patient temporarily lose consciousness, what do you think is the best position for recovery? Explain your answer.

Back 45

Raise leg above heart is key to increase blood flow back to the heart

Front 46

3. List 3 sensory and 3 motor tracts. Give a brief explanation of the function of each.

Back 46

Sensory Pathway to Brain

Lateral spinothalamic carries nerve impulses for pain and heart sensations

Anterior Spinothalamic impulse for tickle, itch, pressure, crude touch (ability to perceive that something touched the skin)

Posterior and Anterior Spinocerebellar proprioception in trunk and lower limbs coordinates smooth and refine skilled movements and maintains posture and balance knowing self space to go to the mall and go out of the parking lot and forgot where you parked, lost proprioception lost then look at G1 G2, etc.

Motor Pathway to Brain

Lateral Corticospinal Tracts precise and highly skilled movement (especially when playing the piano, outer 3mm of brain to lower spine)

Anterior Corticospinal Tracts control movement of neck and trunk.

Corticobulbar Tracts control skeletal muscle movement in head, provide input to cranial nerves (3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 9, 10, 11, 12)

Rubrospinal skeletal muscles for precise movement of distal limbs

Tectospinal move the head and eye in response to visual stimulus

Vestibulospinal regulate ipsi-lateral muscle tone for maintaing balance in response to head movement

Lateral Reticulospinal for flexor reflexes and inhibits extensor reflexes (stops extensor) and decrease muscle tone in axial skeleton and proximal part of limbs

Medial reticulospinal facilitates extensor reflexes and inhibits flexor and increases muscle tone in axial skeleton and proximal part of limb

Front 47

4. Name 4 different sensory receptors and list their functions.

Back 47

Mechanoreceptor is movement fluid flow when writing or not falling off chair d/t posture.

Photoreceptors light, chemoreceptors - chemical; osmoreceptors - osmotic pressure of body fluids- body pressure; Nocireceptors are pain free nerve endings found everywhere in body (except brain)

Thermoreceptors temperature cold receptors/ warm receptors. NOTE: temperature below 50 and above 118 would stimulate pain receptors

Front 48

5. If sensory neurons are damaged where they enter the spinal cord at the dorsal root, will this affect the sensory pathway that will travel in the spinal cord and eventually to the brain? Explain your answer.

Back 48

Sensory nerves let you feel pain, smooth, hot, rough, cold, etc. If sensory neurons damaged, problems may arise. (Example, touching something hot, you are not aware, then it burns your skin) damaged nerve symptom of sensation of burning, tingling, prickling, pain, numbness, etc.

Front 49

6. Explain how information from the right side of the body is interpreted by the left side of the brain. How does this manifest in a stroke victim?

Back 49

Cerebral cortex complications, Corpus collosum 2 hemispheres to communicate decussation. Cerebral cortex comprehension occurs. Sensory organ right side body, sensory impulse from left side brain stimulate interaction, where in spinal cord transfer information? gray matter. Hemispheric lateralization, left hemisphere is more important for right handed control, spoken and written language and numerical scientific skills.

Front 50

7. At which stage of sleep does your body start to rejuvenate itself? Explain your answer.

Back 50

Stage 3 - moderate deep sleep - sleep deepens, vital signs decreases, skeletal muscles relaxed, dreaming usually 20 minutes after onset of stage 1 (theta and delta waves) body start to rejuvenate, heart rate, blood pressure down, temp down

Front 51

8. Why do you think people respond differently to the same type of pain (in intensity and frequency)? Explain your answer.

Back 51

Slow tonic receptors - adapt slowly or not at all, associated with pain, people who get inflicted with pain more often will not feel it compared to an individual who gets that same pain the first time.

Front 52

9. Your patients' legs have been amputated and she is complaining of phantom limb sensation. Explain to the patient, in general terms, what she is experiencing and why.

Back 52

Phantom limb sensations. Severed (amputated) limb but still with sensation. Person still feels itching, pressure, tingling, and pain as if the limb was there, Brain still interprets impulses from the nerves that innervated the amputated limb. Nerve pathway still intact.

Front 53

10. What is an EEG? Give 2 reasons why you would refer a patient for an EEG. Explain your answers.

Back 53

EEG is an electro-encephalogram that records brain activities, measures electrical potential differences between various areas of the cortex. Delta waves high amplitude 4 Hz, see during deep sleep, want this, why do EEG? Insomnia, history of sleep apnea, history of seizure, in coma, if no activity - brain dead

Front 54

11. Memory can be transferred from short term to long term. List three ways this can occur. Given an example for each.

Back 54

1. Emotional state - learned best when aroused, motivated, and alert, release of NE helps with Long term memory

2. Rehearsal - repetition or rehearsing the material

3. Association - associated new information with old information already stored, acronyms

4. Automatic memory - recording things without conscious control (for example when this happens, person with history of abuse, they hide it in rest memory and when 23 go out on date and every time boyfriend touches her, she couldn't take it)

Front 55

12. Explain the difference between learning and memory?

Back 55

1. Learning is ability to acquire new information.

2. Memory is storage and retrieval of a previous experience or information and ability to recall thoughts.

For long term memory, there must be of interest to remember someone's name

Front 56

13. Steven is a truck driver and is complaining that he can't sleep at night because of "mental chatter". He says that he wakes up exhausted and extremely hungry, even though he eats a heavy meal right before he goes to sleep. He also says that his blood sugar fluctuates because he works at night and sleeps during the day. Based on your understanding of cortisol control and the circadian rhythm, explain to Steven what is happening to his body.

Back 56

Circadian rhythm is our 24 hour human sleep and wake cycle, established by hypothalamus, under cortisol and blood sugar control, Blood sugar drops early morning cause us humans to awaken and also responds to sunlight and darkness and lower blood sugar causes person to awaken, brain starved and tells you to eat and break fast, breaking the fast

Front 57

14. Jason is a football player and is complaining of severe "internal aches" in his lower extremities. He is a single father, working full time and also goes to college and plays sports. He eats whatever he an find and never drinks water. In order to keep up with his schedule, he has to drink the caffeinated, 5 hour energy drinks at least two times a day. He is afraid he won't be able to continue to play football because of the aches. He states that he is also always thirsty and extremely fatigue. Consider his blood concentration and explain to Jason what is going on.

Back 57

His blood is most likely hypertonic due to lack of water in his daily intake, caffeine is a diuretic that will cause him to lose water intake already in his body and blood is hypertonic causing fatigue, water intake can assist with the tonicity of blood and a more balanced diet with a variety of foods including potassium or intake of electrolytes due to highly active in daytime, electrolytes need to be replenished.

Front 58

15. Kevin received a gun shot wound to his lumbar region. He is complaining of back pain, he can't control his bowels and is constantly defecating on himself. You inform the patient that the bullet is located in the body of L4 and the doctor will not operate because she feels the operation will cause further damage. He becomes hysterical and begins to cry. He wants to go home now. You explain to him that you can't discharge him until the swelling goes down. You will also have more information for him once the area is no longer inflamed. Give the patient a brief explanation of his condition.

Back 58

In parasympathethic majority of blood in core (comes from cranial nerves and sacral region). When in sympathetic mode blood has shifted to extremities (comes from thoracic and lumbar region) in lungs and heart. Spinal cord is like a map. In order for food to go down parasympathetic relaxed and sympathetic not working turns GI tract off and blood flow divert to extremities. Sympathetic affected that turns Gastrointestinal off and GI tract is smooth muscle, NT cause GI tract to contract and sympathetic stops the contractions. No surgery due to may damage other nerves, the bullet may stay and rope around the bone in bullet, lodged in vertebrae then in lumbar region and stays there, will then lodge in lumbar, doesn't effect spinal cord or nerve, after swelling down, will they regain function? Yes, problem from inflammation of tissue damage.

Front 59

16. What is the function of a mechano-receptor? If a patient is unknowingly exposed to a toxin that damaged mechano-receptors in his lower extremities, how would this problem manifest in the patient?

Back 59

Mechanoreceptors movement, fluid flow, if toxins damage mechano-receptors, patients gait may be affected

Front 60

17. Explain action potential from the axon hillock to the axon terminal. Include a brief explanation of depolarization and repolarization. Explain how the ions sodium and potassium are also involved.

Back 60

Inactive neuron has potassium inside the cell and sodium outside cell, to activate the cell (depolarization) calcium helps send neurotransmitters toward axon terminal (action potential) once neurotransmitters released at synapse, neuron becomes inactive again (repolarization)

Front 61

18. What are the three membranes of the meninges and the spaces between them? What is the purpose of the meninges? Where does cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) circulate?

Back 61

Meninges is brain covering, cranail meninges is continuous with the spinal meninges. Pia mater - innermost layer, Arachnoid - middle layer, Dura mater is outer layer. Meningitis is inflammation of meninges. Subdural space is between dura and arachnoid, subarachnoid space between arachnoid and pia, contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)

Front 62

19. Explain why damage to the peripheral nerves is usually reversible whereas damage to the central nervous system is often not.

Back 62

Damage to CNS = permanent damage and turns into scar tissue. PNS damage will heal tissue/cells regenerate neurogeneration, Schwann cells repairs axons with PNS damage. Repair does not occur for the CNS.

Front 63

20. Name an ion channel that is involved in the exocytosis of the neurotransmitter (NT) acetylcholine into the synaptic cleft? What would happen if this NT wasn't removed from the synaptic cleft?

Back 63

Calcium ions is involved in the exocytosis of the neurotransmitters acetylcholine into synaptic cleft. When certain neurotransmitters are not released, it may cause some mental disorders (schizophrenia, depression, Alzheimer, anxiety, ADHD)