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115 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Properties of Living Things:
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Order
Reproduction Growth and development Energy utilization Response to stimuli Homeostasis Evolutionary adaptation. |
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Properties of Living Things: Order
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All other characteristics of life emerge from an organism’s highly ordered structure.
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Properties of Living Things: Reproduction
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Organisms reproduce their own kind
Life comes only from life Sexual and asexual All organisms have DNA. |
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Properties of Living Things: Growth & Development
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DNA directs the pattern of growth and development:
Increase in size and number of cells Change in form. |
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Properties of Living Things: Energy Utilization
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Energy is transformed into many kinds of work
Metabolism (anabolism/catabolism) Sum of all biological chemical reactions . |
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Properties of Living Things: Response to Stimuli
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Stimulations trigger a response
Mechanoreception, Chemoreception, Photoreception |
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Properties of Living Things: Homeostasis
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Maintaining an organism’s internal environment within tolerable limits
Metabolic processes use energy to maintain balanced intracellular condition homeostasis (coined by Walter Cannon, 1930). |
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Properties of Living Things: Evolutionary Adaption
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-Life evolves as a result of the interaction between organisms and their environments
-Living things adjust & adapt to their surroundings -Adaptations allow organisms to survive in a particular environment -Evolution is witnessed when the species changes. (i.e., animals shedding coat, polar bear white in winter, lizard camouflage) |
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Two approaches to the study of life:
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Reductionistic (Dismantling the parts) & Holistic (Like the study of ecology--examining the whole picture) Examine the whole
Emergent properties results from interactions between components. |
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Hierarchy of Organization (1-12)
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1. atom
C 2. molecule C6H12O6 3. organelle mitochondrion 4. cell muscle cell 5. tissue muscle 6. organ heart 7. system circulatory system 8. organism Mouse 9. population - species mice 10. community college w/mice + men 11. ecosystem community + abiotic factors (soil, water, air) 12. biosphere – earth. |
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Smallest unit of matter:
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Atom (non-living)
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Smallest unit of life:
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Cell (it is the smallest singular thing that can live on its own, independently)
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Who initiated the use for classifying animals (taxonomy or nomenclature)
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Carolus Linnaeus (Carol Linn does my taxes)
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Define: Taxonomy
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The study of systems of classification is called taxonomy; carried out by taxonomists
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What is a binomial nomenclature?
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a combination of two names, genus and species that uniquely identifies each organism.
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List the levels of Taxonomy from Specific to less specific:
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Specific epithet
Genus Family Order Class Phylum or Division (Plantae, Fungi) Kingdom Domain |
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What are the three domains of Taxonomy (Life)?
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Bacteria- Prokaryotic cells
Eukarya- Prokaryotic cells Archaea -Eukaryotic cells. |
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Name the domains of Taxonomy and list examples and characteristics of each:
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Bacteria--prokaryotes (no nucleus-they have nucleoid), unicellular, and microscopic. (i.e., E-coli) bacteria that live in soil, on other organisms, on surfaces, in the sea, and in many other places.
Eukarya--unicellular & cellular, Eukaryote (has a nucleus), they have organelles (humans, animals, plants) Archaea- Prokaryotes, unicellular, live in harsh environments (i.e., Methanococcus) Ancient-type bacteria that thrive in heat, salt, acid conditions, and process methane. |
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What are the two nutritional modes of cells?
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Autotroph-Self-feeder
Heterotroph- feeds on others (i.e., A flower is an Autotroph. "Have you ever seen a flower eat a lion?") |
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The Eukaryotes, which have a nucleus, form a third domain, and comprise 4 kingdoms:
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Protista
Fungi Plantae Animalia |
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Characteristics of Protista:
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Eukaryotic unicellular (mostly):
Protozoa – amoeba Protists - algae. |
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Characteristics of Fungi:
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Eukaryotic multicellular (mostly):
Yeasts, mildew, molds, and mushrooms Nonphotosynthetic: heterotrophs that absorb nutrients. |
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Characteristics of Plantae:
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Eukaryotic multicellular
Complex organization, Nonvascular (mosses) and vascular (ferns, conifers, flowering) plants Many photosynthetic (autotrophs), make carbohydrate from H2O & CO2. |
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Characteristics of Animalia:
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Eukaryotic, multicellular, heterotrophs, injests food
Complex tissues and organs, capacity for movement. |
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Charles Robert Darwin
(1809-1882) |
H.M.S. Beagle (1831-1836)-boat
-The Origin of Species, 1859 -On the Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection descent with modification, natural selection -Theory of Evolution |
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Levels of Scientific Inquiry:
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Hypothesis, Theory, Law or Principle, Tests:variables
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Hypothesis:
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-A tentative explanation of a specific phenomenon
-hypothesis of endosymbionts |
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Theory:
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-An explanatory idea that is broad in scope and supported by a large body of evidence
-theory of evolution, cell theory |
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Law or Principle:
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-Widely accepted idea about a phenomenon
-Mendel’s Laws, Laws of Thermodynamics. |
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Tests: Variables:
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-dependent, measure
-independent, manipulate -, constant. |
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Scientific Method
The hypothetico-deductive method |
Observation
Question Hypothesis Prediction Test Results Conclusion |
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Define: Biology:
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Study of life
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Define: Cytology
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Study of cell
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Define: Homeostasis
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The process of maintaining internal equilibrium of an organism
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Define: Genetics
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Study of inheritance, dna, etc
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Define: Ecology
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The study of organisms and the way they interact with the environment (both abiotic and biotic)
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Define: Emergent Properties
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Life emerges at the level of the cell for a specific reason --properties that emerge, properties that were not part of the component from the previous level
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What are the main points of Darwin's theory of evolution by national selection?
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1) Observation: Individual variation
2) Observation:Overproduction of offspring 3) Inference:Unequal reproductive success (the strong will survive) 4) Inference: Favorable traits will accumulate (b/c the strongest survive, they are going to reproduce with each other and carry on those favorable traits) |
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Give an example of Darwin's theory of evolution by natural selection.
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1) Population with varied inherited traits: Beetles (all ranging in different colors)
2) Elimination of individuals with certain traits: Birds eating the lighter colored beetles (natural process--birds need to eat) 3) Reproduction of survivors (Birds need to eat, they can easily see the lighter beetles, so they choose those when they eat. The grey/darker colored beetles survive being eaten by the bird, reproduce amongst themselves, and changed the populations characteristics) (The natural selective mechanism in this case was the bird being able to see the white beetles) |
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Define: Morphological species concept
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Defining the species based on physical features (size, shape, etc)
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Define: Ecological species concept
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Defining the species based on where it lives and the role it plays in its environment (niche).
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Define: Phylogenetic species concept
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Defining the species based on a common ancestor (genes).
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Evolution: Form & Function history
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According to Lamarck's long-discredited theory of evolution, anatomy will be structured according to functions associated with use; for instance, giraffes are taller to reach the leaves of trees. By contrast, in Darwinian evolution, form (variation) precedes function (as determined by selection). That is to say in Lamarckian evolution the form is altered by the required function, whereas in Darwinian evolution small variations in form allow some parts of the population to function 'better', and are therefore more successful reproductively.
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Properties of Atoms:
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Subatomic particles:
atomic nucleus: protons (p) + neutrons (n) neutral cloud around the nucleus: electrons (e) - |
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Dalton = a.m.u. (atomic mass unit)
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1 dalton = 1.67 X 10-24 g
p = 1 dalton n = 1 dalton e = 1/2000 dalton |
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Atomic # =
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# of protons 8O
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mass # =
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# protons + # n 16O
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Atomic weight =
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a measure of its mass, can be approximated by the mass number.
For example, 4He has a mass number of 4 and an estimated atomic weight of 4 daltons. More precisely, its atomic weight is 4.003 daltons. |
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What is an Isotope?
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The atomic form of an element with different number of neutrons; Used for geological dating, diagnosis research, treatment
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Three Isotopes of C:
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12C = 6p + 6 n (99%)
13C = 6p + 7n (approx. 1%) 14C = 6p + 8n (rarest) |
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Radioactive Isotope:
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Some isotopes are unstable and decay spontaneously, these radioactive isotopes emit particles and energy--which is not good.
14C is a one of these unstable or radioactive isotopes. In its decay, an neutron is converted to a proton and electron. This converts 14C to 14N, changing the identity of that atom. Half life 14C = 5600 yrs. Half life 40K = 1.3 b.yrs. |
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What are the uses for Radioactive isotopes?
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Used for geological dating
Treatment -to trace atoms in metabolism Diagnosis research |
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What is an Ion?
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Atoms that have gained or lost electrons.
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What is a cation?
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When an atom loses an electron
Na = 11p + 11e + 11n Na+ = 11p + 10e + 11n |
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What is an anion?
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When an atom gains an electron
Cl = 17p + 17e + 17n Cl - = 17p + 18e + 17n |
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Redox Reaction:
(topic under cellular respiration and photosynthesis) |
Chemical reaction involving the transfer of 1 or more electrons from one reactant to another
Redox = oxidation-reduction reaction |
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Redox= oxidation-reducing reaction:
Red=? Ox=? |
Red = reduction, gain of electrons by a substance
ox = oxidation, loss of electrons by a substance |
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Electron Orbitals
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space around nucleus where electrons are most likely to be found (90% of the time)
can be shaped differently |
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Electron Shells
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Shells -energy levels within an orbital
the first shell, closest to the nucleus, has the lowest potential energy electrons in outer shells have more potential energy electrons can only change their position if they absorb or release a quantity of energy that matches the difference in potential energy between the two levels |
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Chemical Bonds:
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Atoms with incomplete valence shells interact by either sharing or transferring valence electrons.
-Atoms remaining close together, held by an attractions called chemical bonds. four types: covalent bond ionic bond hydrogen bond Van der Waals interactions |
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Covalent Bonds:
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The sharing of electrons. (3) types
-single bonds -double bonds -triple bonds Non-polar covalent bonds--electrons shared equally Polar covalent bonds-- electrons shared unequally |
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Ionic Bonds:
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Unequal sharing. Attraction between ions of opposite charge. Ions form if two atoms are so unequal in their attraction for valence electrons that one atom strips an electron completely from the other.
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Hydrogen Bonds:
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A slightly positive H atom of a polar covalent bond in one molecule is attracted to a slightly negative atom of a polar covalent bond in another molecule
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Matter:
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is anything that occupies space and has mass.
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Element:
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a substance that cannot be broken down into other substances
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Electronegativity:
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recorded by Linus Pauling
Atom’s ability to attract and pull electrons of a covalent bond. Up and to the right of the periodic table is more electronegative. |
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Nonpolar covalent bond
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Carbon and hydrogen have similar electronegativities
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Polar covalent bond.
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oxygen has a much higher electronegativity than does hydrogen. Compounds with a polar covalent bond have regions that have a partial negative charge near the strongly electronegative atom and a partial positive charge near the weakly electronegative atom.
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Dipole moment:
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It's a partial charge. If you're a partial charge you wouldn't be considered positive or negative--its a feeling
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List the 4 most abundant elements (of the 25) in living things.
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Carbon
Hydrogen Oxygen Nitrogen |
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Example of Hydrogen Bonds:
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For example, ammonia molecules and water molecules link together with weak hydrogen bonds.
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αντιχριστος, ὁ
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Anti-Christ
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Inorganic Chemistry Consists of what 3 compounds?
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Water
Acids Bases |
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Water: chemical formula & properties
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Chemical formula… H2O
Properties cohesive, form H bonds adhesive, clings to surfaces Polar |
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Water: Cohesion
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among water molecules plays a key role in the transport of water against gravity in plants. Combating gravity--the key role in water molecules
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Water: Adhesion
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clinging of one substance to another, contributes too, as water adheres to the wall of the vessels.
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Meniscus
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Measuring device
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Water: Surface Tension
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-a measure of the force necessary to stretch or break the surface of a liquid, is related to cohesion.
Water has a greater surface tension than most other liquids Water behaves as if covered by an invisible film. Some animals can stand, walk, or run on water without breaking the surface. |
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Polarity of Water:
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The molecule has opposite charges on opposite sides
polar molecules form H bonds with other polar molecules |
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Water is the solvent of life: Solution =?
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solution = solvent + solute(s)
ex: cup of hazelnut coffee (hot water, sugar, coffee grounds) Aqueous solution: (liquid based solution) solvent is water |
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Water forms hydrogen bonds with ions
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the Na+ cations form hydrogen bonds with partial negative oxygen regions of water molecules.
the Cl- anions form hydrogen bonds with the partial positive hydrogen regions of water molecules. |
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Hydration shell:
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each dissolved ion is surrounded by a sphere of water molecules
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Water forms hydrogen bonds with polar molecules
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Polar molecules are also soluble in water Even large molecules, like proteins, can dissolve in water if they have ionic and polar regions.
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Water: Hydrophillic
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any substance that has an affinity for water
Some are water-soluble water molecules are attracted to molecules with an electrical charge (ionic or polar bonds) H-bond formation may form |
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Water: Hydrophobic
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Substances that have no affinity for water
Non-ionic & nonpolar compounds are repelled by water no affinity to water water-insoluble Hydrophobic molecules are major ingredients of cell membranes Some vegetables and fruits with nonpolar pesticides |
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Mole Concept:
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Counting individual or even collections of molecules is not practical.
Instead, we can use the concept of a mole to convert weight of a substance to the number of molecules in that substance and vice versa. |
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Ionization of Water:
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2 H2O H3O+ + OH
by convention: H2O H + + OH pH of pure water is 7 (10-7 M) |
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pH
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Scale 0-14
logarithmic scale -pH of a solution is defined as the negative logarithm (base 10) of the H+ concentration pH = - log10 [H+] Example: pure water at RT: pH = -log 10-7M = - (-7) = 7 compare pH 2 to pH 4 |
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Formula for pH meter
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pH = - log10 [H+]
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What is the basis of the pH scale?
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pH scale is based upon the -log of the hydrogen concentration in a substance. Measures the concentration
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Acids:
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substances that increase [H+] in solution
pH below 7 ex: HCl H+ + Cl - -acid precipitation, with pH < 5.6 -acid indigestion use antacids (tested in lab) |
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Bases:
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substances that reduce [H+] in solution
pH above 7 ex. NH3 + H+ NH4 + NaOH Na+ + OH- |
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Buffer:
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prevent sudden pH changes in biological fluids
accept hydrogen ions from the solution when they are in excess and donate hydrogen ions when they have been depleted |
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Trace Element:
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Elements in very small quantities that our body needs in order to perform certain necessary biochemical functions. Usually metals because metals for ions--when metals have a charge they spark a certain reaction in our body. (i.e., Fe, Mg, Ca, Fl, K, I, Zn)
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What is Organic Chemistry?
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The study of carbon-containing compounds.
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Why are Carbon atoms considered the building blocks of molecules?
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The are the most versatile. With a total of 6 electrons, a carbon atom has 2 in the first shell and 4 in the second shell.
-Carbon usually completes its valence shell by sharing electrons with other atoms in four covalent bonds. -This tetravalence by carbon makes large, complex molecules possible. |
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What are Carbon chains?
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form the skeletons of most organic molecules
-the skeletons may vary in length and may be straight, branched, or arranged in closed rings -the carbon skeletons may also include double bonds |
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What is a functional group?
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A specific configuration of atoms commonly attached to the carbon skeletons of organic molecules and usually involved in chemical reactions
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What are the different functional groups?
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Hydroxyl -OH
Carbonyl CO Carboxyl -COOH Amino -NH2 Sulfhydryl -SH Phosphate - PO4 2- (-OPO32-) Methyl -CH3 |
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What is a hydroxyl group?
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(-OH),
-a hydrogen atom forms a polar covalent bond with an oxygen which forms a polar covalent bond to the carbon skeleton. -Organic compounds with hydroxyl groups are alcohols and their names typically end in -ol. |
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What is a carbonyl group?
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(- -CO)--bar up and right)
-consists of an oxygen atom joined to the carbon skeleton by a double bond. aldehyde -If the carbonyl group is on the end of the skeleton, ketone - if not at the end |
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What is a carboxyl group?
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(-COOH) carbon atom with a double bond with an oxygen atom and a single bond to a hydroxyl group.
carboxylic acids - compounds with carboxyl groups Acidic properties - because the combined electronegativities of the two adjacent oxygen atoms increase the dissociation of hydrogen as an ion (H+). |
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What is an amino group?
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(-NH2) nitrogen atom attached to two hydrogen atoms and the carbon skeleton.
Amines - Organic compounds with amino groups. Basic properties - because ammonia can pick up a hydrogen ion (H+) from the solution. |
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What is a sulfhydryl group?
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(-SH)
sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom and to the backbone thiols - organic molecules with sulfhydryl Sulfhydryl groups help stabilize the structure of proteins. |
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What is a phosphate group?
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(-OPO32-)
-Phosphorus bound to four oxygen atoms (three with single bonds and one with a double bond). -Phosphate groups are anions with two negative charges as two protons have dissociated from the oxygen atoms. -One function of phosphate groups is to transfer energy between organic molecules. |
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What is a methyl group?
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(-CH3)
Carbon bonded to 3 hydrogen atoms. The methyl group may be attached to a C or a different atom Addition of methyl to molecule changes its shape and function |
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What are the three types of Isomers?
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Structural isomers
Geometric isomers Enantiomers |
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What are the properties of structural isomers?
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-Variation in covalent partners
-butane has a straight skeleton and isobutane has a branched skeleton -same molecular formula C4H10 |
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What are the properties of geometric isomers?
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-Variation in arrangement about a double bond
-rhodopsin (in the retina) from one geometric isomer to another. |
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What are the properties of enantiomers?
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-Variation in spatial arrangement, mirror images
-enantiomers are possible if there are four different atoms or groups of atoms bonded to a carbon -they are like left-handed and right-handed versions -usually one is biologically active, the other inactive |
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What are the (4) classes of macromolecules?
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Carbohydrates
Lipids Proteins Nucleic Acid |
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What is a polymer?
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Chain of linked monomers.
polymer monomer 1. Carbohydrates ------- sugar 2. Proteins --------------- amino acids 3. Nucleic acids --------- nucleotides |
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What is a composite molecule?
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Lipids ---------glycerol + fatty acid(s)
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Macromolecule bond- bonds/link types
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macromolecule bond/link type
1. Carbohydrates ----- glycosidic linkage 2. Lipids ---------------- ester linkage 3. Proteins------------- peptide bond 4. Nucleic acids------phosphodiester bond |
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Dehydration synthesis
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(Condensation) - remove a water molecule, polymerize
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