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116 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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How many different types of lipids?
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6: 1) Fatty Acid
2) Triacylglycerols 3) Phospholipids 4) Glycolipids 5) Steriods 6) Terpenes |
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Fatty Acid:
Structure Function Types |
Carboxylic head group with a tail of C's
When oxidized releases lots of energy Saturated and Unsaturated |
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Triacylglycerols:
Structure Function Types |
glycerol with 3 fatty acid chains
Stores energy, thermal insulation, and padding triglycerides, fats, or oil |
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Phospholipids:
Structure Function Types |
Glycerol backbone but instead of 3 fatty acid chains has a phosphate group making it polar
structural component of membranes |
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Glycolipids:
Structure Function Types |
Same as phospholipid instead of a phosphate group it has a carbohydrate group.
found in myelinated cells |
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Steroids:
Structure Function Type |
four ring structure
regulates metabolic activities hormones, Vitamin D, cholesterol |
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Eicosanoids:
Structure Function Types |
20 Carbon Fatty Acid
Released from cell membrane as hormones: regulate blood pressure, body temperature, and smooth muscle contraction Prostaglandin, thromboxane, leukotriene |
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Lipoproteins
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Transfers lipids by a lipid core surrounded with phospholipids and apoproteins
VDL, LDL, HDL |
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Nonpolar amino acids
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glycine, valine, alanine, leucine, isoleucine, phenylalanine, methionine, tryptophan, and proline
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Polar amino acids
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serine, threonine, cysteine, tyrosine, asparagine, glutamine
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Acidic amino acids
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Aspartic, Glutamic
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Basic amino acids
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Lysine, Arginine, Histidine
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When you see N think?
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Protein
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Primary
Secondary Tertiary Quaternary |
sequence of amino acids
α helix, β sheet Twisted polypeptide multiple polypeptide |
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Five forces that help form tertiary structure
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1) disulfide bonds
2) ionic interactions 3) H-bonds 4) van der waals 5) hydrophobic side chains |
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Glucose two types of structure
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β and α
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Glycogen structure
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α (1-4) and α (1-6)
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Starch
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α (1-4)
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Cellulose
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β (1-4)
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Nucleotides 3 components
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1) 5 carbon sugar
2) nitrogenous base 3) phosphate group |
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Two types of enzyme specificity
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Lock and Key
Induced Fit |
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Saturation Kinetics
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Concentration of substrate increases the rate of reaction increases until it hits Vmax
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Things that effect enzymes
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Temperature
PH |
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Three types of enzyme inhibition
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Competitive- compete with substrate
Noncompetitive- binds to enzyme and changes it's conformation Irreversible- binds to active site |
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Four types of enzyme regulation
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Proteolytic Cleavage- enzymes start as a zymogen or proenzyme and when cleaved becomes activated
Reversible covalent modification- activated or deactivated by phosphorylation Control proteins- G proteins Allosteric Interactions- noncompetitive inhibitor |
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Negative and Positive Feedback
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negative- turns off
positive -turns on |
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Where does most glycolysis occur in humans?
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Liver
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Net ATP produced from Glycolysis
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2 used and 4 produced= Net total of 2
If including the NADH then that is 4 ATP which brings the total to 6 |
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Aerobic Respiration occurs where?
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In the mitochondria
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How is pyruvate and NADH moved from the cytosol into the mitochondria?
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Through facilitated diffusion through the porins located in the outer membrane of the mitochondria
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One turn of the kreb cycle produces?
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1 ATP, 3 NADH, 1 FADH₂
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Anabolism?
Catabolism? |
synthesis
degradation |
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Oxidative Phosphorylation
Substrate level phosphorylation |
involves the electron transport chain and ATP synthase, and generates ATP from NADH and FADH₂ (kreb cycle)
Generates ATP from high energy phosphorylated compounds (glycolysis) |
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Products and Reactants for respiration
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Glucose + O₂ => CO₂ + H₂O
combustion |
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Electron Transport Chain
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as electrons are passed along the carriers they are reduced and then oxidized
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Fermentation
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Turns NADH back into NAD+
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Net ATP produced by Kreb cycle?
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Net total= 30 ATP
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Central Dogma
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DNA-RNA-Protein
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Purines
Pyrimidines |
Adenine, Guanine
Cytosine, Thymine, Uracil |
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Replication (5 steps)
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1) Helicase unzips the DNA helix
2) Primase creates an RNA primer 3) DNA polymerase adds deoxynucleotides to the primer 4) Primers are removed 5) okazaki fragments are joined |
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RNA
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1) made from ribose
2) single stranded 3) can exit nucleus through nuclear pore 4) mRNA, tRNA, rRNA |
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Transcription
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Initiation: initiation factors find promoter on DNA starnd and assembles initiation complex
Elongation: RNa unzips DNA creates a transcription bubble Termination |
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Post transcriptional processing
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Primary transcript adds 5' cap and 3' poly A tail. Introns are cut out and remain in nucleus
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Location of DNA
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nucleus or mitochondria matrix
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Stop codons
Start codons |
UAA, UGA, UAG
AUG |
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mRNA
tRNA rRNA |
template
anticodon also carries amino acid makes up ribosome |
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Translation (3 steps)
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Initiation- meth attaches to P site
Elongation- another tRNA comes into A site and translocation shifts the tRNA into E site Termination- Stop codon is reached |
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Proteins injected into ER lumen
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are destined to be membrane proteins. signal peptide directs ribosome to attach to ER
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Mutations (nucleotide replacement)
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Base Pair Mutations -> nonstop codon -> missense or Base Pair Mutations -> stop codon -> nonsense
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Mutations (nucleotide addition or removal)
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Insertions and Deletions -> non multiples of 3 -> Frameshift or Insertions and Deletions -> multiples of 3 -> nonframeshift
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Histones
Nucleosome Solenoids What do all 3 combined make? |
DNA wrapped around globular proteins
8 histones nucleosomes wrapped into coils chromatin |
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How many chromosomes in human somatic cells?
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46
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Homologues
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two chromosomes that code for same traits, but gene may be different
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Cell Life Cycle
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G₁- cells just split and is now growing. Lots of RNA and protein synthesis. cell can enter G₀ or S phase
G₀- non-growing cycle S- replicates DNA, each chromosome now has 2 identical sister chromatids G₂- cell prepares to divide, detects MPF levels, when it's high enough cell enter M phase |
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Mitosis (PMAT)
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Prophase- chromatin condenses, centrioles move to opposite end of cell, nucleolus/nucleus disappear, spindle apparatus appears
Metaphase- chromosomes align along equator of cell Anaphase- sister chromatids split and move to opposite ends of cell Telophase- nucleus/nucleolus reform, chromosomes decondense, cytokinesis |
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Meiosis (females)
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replication takes place before birth and are in primary oocyte stage until puberty
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Meiosis
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Prophase I - crossing over/ genetic recombination occurs
Metaphase I- tetrads align in meiosis Anaphase I- separates tetrads Telophase I- new cells for secondary spermatocyte or oocyte Mitosis |
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Virus structure
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Capsid, and DNA or RNA, tail
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Viruses are considered not living because?
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1) require host cells reproductive machinery
2) Does not metabolize organic nutrients 3) Contains either DNA or RNA |
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Lytic Infection
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Virus attaches to cell wall -> virus injects nucleic acid into cell -> replications of active virus -> assembly of new viruses -> lysis of cell-> virions -> repeats
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Lysogenic Infection
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viral DNA integrates into chromosomes and is only activated when cell is under stress
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Plus strand RNA
Retroviruses Minus strand RNA |
cold, proteins can be translated by RNA
RNA -> DNA must be transcribed to plus RNA |
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Prokaryotes
groups structure |
bacteria and archae
no nucleus, single circular double strand of DNA, cocci (round) or bacilli (rod) |
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Autotrophs
Heterotrophs Phototrophs Chemotrophs Lithotroph Organtroph |
uses CO2 as primary carbon source
uses C from organisms living or dead Light Oxidation of organic/inorganic matter acquires e- and H+ from inorganic acquires e- and H+ from organic |
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Fluid mosaic Model
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membrane can move laterally, steroids reduce the fluidity
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Passive Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion Active Transport |
brownian motion causes diffusion which is cause by a gradient (chemical or electrical)
Diffusion but through protein channels Uses energy to go against the gradient |
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Hypertonic
Hypotonic Isotonic |
more inside cell than environment
more outside cell than in equal |
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Gram (+) Bacteria
Gram (-) Bacteria |
Thick peptidoglycan cell wall (purple)
Thin cell wall (pink) |
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Bacterial Flagella is made from?
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Flagellin
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Types of Bacterial Reproduction (4)
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1) Conjugation- sex pilus
2)Transformation- incorporating DNA from outside 3)Transduction- virus DNA 4)Binary Fission 1-3 genetic recombination |
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Three Divisions for Fungi
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Zygomycota
Ascomycota Basidiomycota |
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Saprophytic?
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Dead or Alive
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Fungus Cell walls
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Septa, made from polysaccharide chitin
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Reproduction for fungus
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Most of life is haploid, use only budding, can reproduce sexually or asexually, mitosis only occurs in nucleus.
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Endocytosis (3)
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Phagocytosis
Pinocytosis- extracellular fluid Exocytosis |
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Rough ER
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creates proteins that are sent toward Golgi
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Smooth ER
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produces triglycerides, helps detoxify, steroid synthesis
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Peroxisomes
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vesicles in cytosol, inactivates toxic substances
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Microtubules
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made from tubulin, two types α and β
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Eukaryotic Flagella
Bacteria Flagella |
9 + 2
Flagellin |
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Microfilaments
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Made of Actin
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Cell Junctions (3)
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Tight Junction- Fluid barrier
Desmosomes- Join 2 cells at a single point Gap Junctions- Tunnels connecting cells |
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Intercellular communication (3)
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1) neurotransmitters
2) local mediators 3) hormones |
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Neuronal Communication
Hormonal Communication |
Quick and responsive, short distance
Slow, but spreads through body |
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Neurons (3)
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Unipolar (sensory)
Bipolar Multipolar (most common) |
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Peptide Hormones- Water Soluble
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Anterior Pituitary- FSH, LH, hGH, TSH, ACTH, Prolactin
Posterior Pituitary- ADH, Oxytocin Parathyroid Hormone Pancreatic Hormones- Insulin, Glucagon |
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Steroid Hormones- Lipid Soluble
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Adrenal Cortex- Aldostereone, Cortisol
Gonads- Estrogen, Progesterone, Testosterone |
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Thyroid Hormones- Lipid Soluble
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T3, T4
Adrenal Medulla- Epinephrine, Norepinephrin |
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hGH
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stimulates growth in all cells
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ACTH
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stimulates adrenal cortex to release glucocorticoids
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TSH
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stimulates thyroid to release t3, t4
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Prolactin
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Promotes Lactation
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Oxytocin
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increases uterine contractions, causes milk to be ejected
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ADH
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reduces urine
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Aldosterone
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Increases Na+ and Cl- reabsorption, increases blood pressure
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Cortisol
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Increases blood glucose levels
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T3 and T4
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Increases BMR
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Calcitonin
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Decreases Calcium
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Insulin
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Lower blood glucose levels
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Glucagon
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Raises blood glucose levels
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PTH
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Increases blood calcium
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Resting Potential
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cell has reached equilibrium with Na and K ions and the inner membrane has a negative potential when compared to the outer.
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Process of Action Potential
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1) membranes at Na and K channels are closed
2) Na opens and begins depolarizing 3) K opens and Na starts to close 4) K repolarizes 5) K closes, causes hyperpolarization |
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Absolute refractory Period
Relative Refractory Period |
No stimulus will create an action potential
Only abnormally large stimulus will start the action potential |
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Synapse
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Electrical
Chemical (unidirectional) |
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Neurotransmitter (in synaptic cleft)
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1) destroyed
2) absorbed by presynaptic cleft 3) diffuses out |
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Neurons (3)
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Sensory
Interneurons Motor |
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CNS
PNS |
brain and spinal cord
everything else |
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PNS- Somatic
Autonomic |
responds to external environment (voluntary)
nonvoluntary |
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Autonomic- Sympathetic
Parasympathetic |
flight or fight (epinephrine and norepinephrine)
rest and digest (acetylcholine |
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CNS- Lower Brain
Higher Brain |
Medulla, hypothalamus, thalamus, cerebellum
cerebrum or cerebral cortex |
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Pathway of Eye
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Cornea
Anterior Cavity Pupil Iris Lens (connected to ciliary muscle) Retina (rods and cones) |
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Pathway of Ear
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Tympanic Membrane
Malleus, Incus, Stapes Oval Window Cochlea Hair cells |
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Menstrual Cycle
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1) follicular phase
2) Luteal phase 3) flow |
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Stomach (4 major cell types)
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Mucous Cells- makes mucous
Chief Cells- Synthesis Pepsinogen Parietal Cells- Est. a H+ gradient G Cells- Secretes Gastrin |
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Pancreas- 6 major enzymes
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1)Trypsin
2)Chymotrypsin 3)pancreatic amylase 4)lipase 5)ribonuclease 5)deoxyribonuclease |
