Anthropology Exam 2 Review

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Fission

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formation of new, smaller villages from old

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Fusion

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merging of smaller villages to form large ones

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Exogamy

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tendency to choose mates from outside the local population

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Ecological Species Concept

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a concept of species in which a species is a set of organisms adapted to a particular set of resources, called a niche, in the environment

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Allopatric Speciation

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occurs when a population is divided by some type of barrier, and diff parts of the pop. adapt to diff. environments

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Carolus Linnaeus

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developed the first comprehensive and still influential classification, or taxonomy, of plants and animals

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Lamarkian evolution

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An organism wills itself to change in order to meet an environmental challenge, it then passes acquired characteristics off to offspring/this is wrong

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What is a phylogeny?

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An organism’s genetic relatedness based on common ancestry. In other words, organisms share features they have inherited from the same ancestor.

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Darwinism

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proposed the theory of evolution on the basis of natural selection

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Mendel’s law of segregation

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allele pairs separate or segregate during gamete formation and randomly unite during fertilization

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Mendel’s law of independent assortment

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Chromosomes inherited independently of one another

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Microevolution

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Genetic changes in a population over a few, several, or many generations, but without speciation (within same species)

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Four forces of microevolution

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Mutation- random changes in the DNA molecules of which genes and chromosomes are built (at individual level) ; only source of new variation
Gene Flow- introduction of new genes through integrating, migration, mixing
Genetic Drift – geographic isolation or random event acts on allele frequency
Natural Selection – acts on fitness, differential survival and reproduction, acts on existing variation in a population

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Macroevolution

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Change in species over time (speciation) can’t be observed in our lifetime

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3 kinds of Macroevolution

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Allopatric speciation: reproductive isolation due to geographic barrier
Sympatric speciation: gene flow + directional selection favors 2 different phenotypes at the same time
Parapatric speciation: partial genetic isolation + directional selection favors two different phenotypes

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Directional selection vs. stabilizing selection

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Directional Selection: extremes have the highest fitness (when you
eliminate predator)
Stabilizing selection: extremes have the lowest fitness and macroevolutionary change is unlikely.

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Natural selection/Sexual Selection

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-Selection of favored forms through differential reproductive success.
-Selection through competition for mates in a breeding population.

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Biocultural approach

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Where biological and genetics, environment limitations (heat, cold, altitude, nutrition, disease) and social growth (social, economic, political, environment) meet (Vin diagram between the three) makes the ecosystem approach

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Adaptation and its 4 levels

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-beneficial phenotypic trait relative to the environment
4 levels
1. Genetic: variation in a population
2. Acclimatization/ Acclimation - physiological NON GENETIC/ biological plasticity
3. Developmental Acclimatization - biological changes that are genetic, how your body changes in response
4. Culture and behavior
can either group 1-3 (biological) or 2-4

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Adaptation to Heat

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Genetic: Thin body (Bergman’s rule)
Acclimation: Sweating, vasodilation
Acclimatization: Efficient sweating & vasodilation
Developmental Acclimatization: more activated sweat glands
Behavioral/Cultural: take a nap, stay inside, less clothes, AC

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Adaptation to Extreme Cold

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Genetic: Thick body (Bergman’s rule)
Acclimation: shivering, Lewis hunting cycles
Acclimatization: efficient shivering, Lewis hunting cycles
Developmental Acclimatization: fisherman example - high metabolic rate
Behavioral/Cultural: bundle up, fur coat, snuggling, etc

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Adaptation to Hypoxia

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Genetic: unclear… possible larger lung size? Both studies proved each other different
Acclimation: increased breathing, heart rate
Acclimatization: efficient breathing, heart rate
Developmental Acclimatization: large chest (lungs, heart) blunted ventilator response (unsure if inherited)
Behavioral/Cultural: Drink water, oxygen tank, work slowly

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Bergman’s Rule

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Body shape and size; the colder the climate, the shorter and stalkier the average body size is (ex: Inuits vs Africans)
-small the SA is the more efficient heat loss you’ll have (tall & skinny=cooler)

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Allen’s Rule

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Limb length according to climate (Africans=tall and elongated)

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Thompson’s Rule

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Nose size; the larger the nose, the more moisture you can retain
(People in dry climates have larger noses)
-smaller nose, warmer climates

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Evolution of skin color/pigmentation

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oProduct of evolution
oVitamin D deficiency
oDark people need to be outside, light people have adapted to receive less sun

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Skin color daptive advantages and disadvantages

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-Dark is a natural sun screen and protection against skin cancer
and folate destruction
·Inability to make vitamin D and an increase risk for
rickets and osteoporosis

-Light skin has no sun screen but allows for vitamin D synthesis
· Increased risk of skin cancer and folate destruction

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Lactose tolerance

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the ability to break down lactose persists because of a mutation in the lactase gene (LCT)/Digesting milk is an adaptive advantage where other foods are scarce

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Sickle Cell

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Individuals who are homozygous for HbS suffer from sickle cell anemia
Only people who were homozygous (HbS and HbS) died from sickle cell anemia. Heterozygous suffered very mild anemia. Although people homozygous for HbA did not suffer from anemia, they were much more susceptible to malaria.

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Malaria

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the heterozygote with one sickle-cell allele and one normal one was the fittest phenotype for a malarial environment. heterozygotes have enough hemoglobin in which malaria infected parasites cannot thrive, protecting them against malaria.

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Relationship between sickle cell and malaria

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Sickle cell is adaptive because plasmodium parasites do not develop in sickle cell red blood cells, so resistant to malaria if you have Sickle-cell
Genotype heterozygous (AS)= Protection against malaria
“Balanced polymorphism” is adaptive where Malaria is present

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Characteristics of primates

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o Grasping hands, opposable thumbs, brachiating arms
o Stereoscopic vision (3D color vision more valuable than smell- indicative of tree environment)
o Nails instead of claws
o Big brain
o Parental investment, slow reproduction, small litters
o Sociality

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Why study primates

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o Humans are primates
o Our closest living kin of all species
o Learn about macroevolution
o Primates conservation and human resources decisions

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Similarities and differences between humans and nonhuman primates

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Similarities: similar anatomy, brain structure, genetics, and biochemistry. Both belong to the class Mammalia. Longer lifespan, longer interval between births of infants, do not usually give birth to litters,

Differences: the limb ratio of nonhuman primates differs from those of humans.

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Locomotion, diet, activity patterns of Prosimians

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Locomotion: Vertical clingers and leapers
Diet: Insects and fruit
Activity: Mainly nocturnal
· Lemurs, Tarsiers, Bushbabies, Loris, and Aye aye

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Locomotion, diet, activity patterns of New World Monkeys

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Locomotion: arboreal quadrupeds (live in trees)
Prehensile tail (grasping tail)
· Spider, Squirrel, Capuchin, Tamarin, Howler, Marmoset

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Locomotion, diet, activity patterns of Old World Monkeys

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Locomotion: terrestrial quadrupeds sleep in trees
No prehensile tail
Ischial callosities
· Baboon, Macaque, Langurs, Pobocis, Drill/Madrill

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Locomotion, diet, activity patterns of Lesser Apes

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§ Locomotion: Brachiation
§ No tail
§ Loud call system
· Gibbon and Siamang

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Locomotion, diet, activity patterns of Great Apes

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§ No tail
§ Intelligent, social, and tool-using
· Hylobates, Orangutan, Gorilla, Chimps, Bonobo

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How to identify a biped in the fossil record

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· Knees (knock-kneed)
· Articulation of femur and pelvis
· Pelvis shape (fan shaped)
· Angle of Foramen magnum- hole in the bottom of the skull
· Acute angle between the trochanter and the iliac crest

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Tradeoffs of bipedalism

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oChronic back aches
oComplicated births

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Old ideas of bipedalism

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· Adaptation to dry savanna
o Predator avoidance: see above grass
o Temperature regulation and UV radiation reduction
· Frees hands helps you to carry things/ do things
· Aquatic adaptation

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New thoughts on bipedalism

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Generalized locomotion for mosaic environment
o Arms-> arboreal
o Legs-> terrestrial
Prolonged running… for hunting!

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Social intelligence model and the evolution of intelligence

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Natural selection has struck a balance between the structural demands of upright posture and the tendency toward increased brain size- the birth of immature and dependent children whose brains and skulls grow dramatically after birth. Challenges had to be overcome, but the brain size has increased during hominin evolution, especially with the advent of the genus Homo.

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The Gracile Australopithecines (Lucy)

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-Include fossils found in Tanzania and Ethiopia (East Africa)
-Lived between about 3.8-3.0 mya
-bipedal
-Was a vegetarian
-Shown through massive back teeth, jaws, and facial and cranial structures

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The Robust Australopithecines

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-huge molars, heavy skull
-Ate tough vegetation (powerful chewing)
-Folivore
-Lived between about 2.5-1.8 mya
-Evolutionary dead end
-Located in South Africa

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Homo habilis

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-Larger brain
-East Africa
-Flat face
-Lived between 2.4-1.4 mya
-Walked on 2 legs (bipedal-)
-Used oldowan tool “handy man”
-earliest stone tools
-Scavenger
-Generalized teeth
grinding less tough vegetation

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Homo erectus

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-large brain
-Africa, Asia, Europe
-Lived in caves
-Hunted large game
-Used tools that were more sophisticated that oldowan t-tools (boats and rafts)
-There was a cognitive leap between H. erectus and earlier hominins
-Lived between 1.8-0.3 mya
-examples:
Nariokotome boy (turkana boy)
“Java Man” (trinil)

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Cro-magnon

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-The first fossil find (1868) of an anatomically modern human(AMH) from France’s Dordogne Valley
-First reached Europe around 50,000 b.p
-H.erectus is the ancestor of Cro-magnon

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Homo floresiensis

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-Found in Flores, and Indonesian island
-Tiny people who lived, hunted, and gathered on Flores from about 95,000 b.p until at least 13,000 b.p
-Had a very small skull (smaller than a chimp)
-Was able to control fire and used stone tools (ex. small blades)
-Hunted elephants

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Homo neanderthalensis

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-Dates: 130,000 to 28,000 b.p
-Known distribution: Europe and Southwestern Asia
-Used Mousterian tools
-Characteristics:
*huge front teeth
*broad faces
*large brow ridges
-The “cold-adapted” neandertals wore clothes and made more elaborate tools
*they also hunted reindeer, mammoths, and woolly rhinos

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Multiregionalism

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homo erectus left Africa 2 mya to become homo sapiens in different parts of the world/The primary alternative of this theory is the “Out of Africa” theory discussed above

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Out of Africa theory

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The hypothesis holds that humans first arose in the beginning of the Pleistocene 2.0 MYA and subsequent human evolution has been within a single, continuous human species

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Genetic clocks

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- Established by Berkley researchers that measured the variation in mitochondrial
DNA in their 147 tissue samples.
- Compared the samples
- Estimated the number of mutations that had occurred since its common origin with the other 146, this gave them the ability to draw an evolutionary tree with the help of a computer
- Tree started in Africa, branched in two with one group remaining in Africa and the rest spreading to the rest of the world
- Greatest mtDNA variation in Africans suggesting they had been evolving the longest

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Sickle Cell/Malaria genotypes and effects

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SS= immune to malaria, die of anemia
AA= immune to anemia, die of malaria
AS= increased immunity to malaria, mild anemia

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Beringia was the strip of land that connected North America to ____________

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Siberia

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The inhabitants of ________ are responsible for the colonization of the American continent

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“Beringia”

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Early American Indians, ___________, hunted horses, camel, bison, elephants, mammoths, and giant sloths using their developed hunting technique called the Clovis tradition

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Paleoindinas

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Clovis Tradition

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early America tool tradition; point attached to a hunting spear/C14 dating reveals it only lasted between 200-450 years

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Evidence for the early occupation of southern America suggests that the first migration of people into the Americas may date back to __________

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18000 YA

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Archeologist find traces of humankind more than 30,000 years old in __________

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Australia, Papa New Guinea, and the neighboring islands of the southwest Pacific

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Lapita shards have been used to date the earliest Polynesian settlement between 2850 and 2950 years ago in Tonga. ________ became the last large area of the world to be settled by humans

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Polynesia

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General consensus of hominins

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6 MYA: hominins originate in Africa (habitual bipeds)
2.6 MYA: Oldowan tools
1.7 MYA: H. Erectus spreads out of Africa
200 KYA: Anatomically modern humans