Anthro Lab Midterm 1

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steps of the scientific method

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1. Theory 2. Use to make prediction 3. Design an Experiment to test prediction 4. Experiment 5. Observation 6. Analyze/Draw Conclusions

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sections of scientific lab report

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1. Title 2. Abstract 3. Intro 4. Materials & Methods 5. Discussion 6. Literature Cited

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science vs. religion

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bounded vs. unbounded

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teleology

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the explanation of phenomena by the purpose they serve rather than by postulated causes

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assumptions of science

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1. There are natural causes for things that happen in the world around us

2. Evidence from the natural world can be used to learn about those causes

3.There is consistency in the causes that operate in the natural world

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natural causality

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all events in nature and the universe are due to natural causes

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uniformity in space and time

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all events occur in the same way whenever or where ever they may happen in the universe

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common perception

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The basic assumption in science that all humans experience events in the same way through their senses

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independent variable

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the one that is changed by the scientist. To ensure a fair test, a good experiment has only one independent variable. As the scientist changes the independent variable, he or she observes what happens ; isn't changed by other variables

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dependent variable

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A dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment and what is affected during the experiment; responds to the independent variable

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control variable

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quantities that a scientist wants to remain constant, and he must observe them as carefully as the dependent variables

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null hypothesis

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The null hypothesis attempts to show that no variation exists between variables, or that a single variable is no different than zero.

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natural selection

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the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.

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Charles Darwin

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yo

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Galapagos Islands

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yo

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H.M.S Beagles

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yo

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Galapagos finches

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yo

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selective pressures

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any phenomena which alters the behavior and fitness of living organisms within a given environment. It is the driving force of evolution and natural selection, and it can be divided into two types of pressure: biotic or abiotic

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eukaryotic cells

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contain a true nucleus; make up all forms of life besides bacteria and cynobacteria

*all have plasma membrane, cytoplasm, organelles and DNA

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somatic cell (body cells)

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One of the cells found in humans; cells that make up the body of an organism

ex: hair, skin, lungs, liver, muscles, blood

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gamete (sex cells)

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sperm found in male testes and the ovum(egg cells); carries info required to make the next generation

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chromosome

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DNA & proteins found in here. Located in the nucleus, made up of long thread like material named chromatin. Normally single stranded, become double stranded when DNA replicates. Each strand is a chromatid

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karyotype

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when chromosomes are stained and photographed

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homologous chromosomes

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A pair of chromosomes that contain the same gene sequences, each derived from one parent

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chromatid

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each of the two threadlike strands into which a chromosome divides longitudinally during cell division. Each contains a double helix of DNA. when double stranded called sister chromatid

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centromere

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the point on a chromosome by which it is attached to a spindle fiber during cell division. separates one chromatid into "arms"; could be in the middle or off center changing the length of the arms

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homologous pairs

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a pair of chromosomes containing a maternal and paternal chromatid joined to together at the centromere. The have the exact same gene - although may have different alleles of these genes, Position (loci) and size. Members of a homologous pair pair up during meiosis

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nondisjunction

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a failure of the chromosomes to segregate properly during cell division

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genes

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segments of DNA that code for specific traits

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alleles

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alternate forms of a gene

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Turner syndrome

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XO, deletion of a sex chromosome; these are females that are short, with lower than average intelligence and are infertile

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Klinefelter syndrome

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XXY, an extra X chromosome; these are males that are tall, with lower than average intelligence and are infertile

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down sydrome

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Three copies of chromosome 21 (trisomy 21); characterized by many traits but mostly mental retardation

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mitosis

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a type of cell division that results in two daughter cells each having the same number and kind of chromosomes as the parent nucleus, typical of ordinary tissue growth and repair

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meiosis

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a type of cell division that results in four daughter cells each with half the number of chromosomes of the parent cell, as in the production of gametes and plant spores; takes place in the testes and ovaries

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diploid

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the full complement of chromosomes (46)

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haploid

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the genetic complement is half of the original (diploid) 23; single set of unpaired chromosomes

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recombination/crossing over

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when homologous chromosomes pair up and intertwine in Meiosis 1 the chromatids break and portions of chromatids bearing genes for the same trait are exchanged, or reshuffled, between homologous chromosomes

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double helix

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James Watson and Francis Crick proposed the DNA molecule was composed of two strands that were twisted around each other

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4 DNA bases: thymine, cytosine, adenine, guanine

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In DNA, there are four different bases: adenine (A) and guanine (G) are the larger purines. Cytosine (C) and thymine (T) are the smaller pyrimidines. RNA also contains four different bases. They create the rungs of the double helix. Are paired together complementary A&T and C&G

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codon

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mRNA is read three bases at a time. Codon is a series of three bases

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hybrid

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when parents that are true-breeders for different traits are mated their offspring are called

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Mendel's f1 and f2

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Mendel started out with plants that "bred true". That is, when tall plants were self-pollinated (or cross-pollinated with others like them), plants in following generations were all tall; when the short plants were self-pollinated (or cross- pollinated with others like them) the plants in following generations were all short.Mendel found that if true breeding Tall [T] plants are crossed (bred) with true breeding short [t] plants, all the next generation of plants, called F1, are all tall.Next, he showed that self-pollinated F1 plants (or cross- pollinated with other F1 plants) produce an F2 generation with 3/4 of the plants tall and 1/4 short.A. 1/4 of the F2 generation are short plants, which produce only short plants in the F3 generation, if they are self- pollinated (or crossed with other short F2 plants;) these F2 plants breed true.B, 1/4 of the F2 generation (1/3 of the tall plants) are tall plants that produce only tall plants in the F3 generation, if they are self-pollinated; these tall F2 plants breed true.C. 1/2 of the F2 generation (2/3 of the tall plants) are tall plants that produce 1/4 short plants and 3/4 tall plants in the next [F3] generation, if they are self-pollinated. This is the same proportion of tall to short that F1 plants produce.

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genotype

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the genetic constitution of an organism

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phenotype

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the physical characteristics of an organism, the expression of its genes

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dominant

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the ability of one allele to hide or mask another

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recessive

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the allele that is not expressed or hidden

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homozygous

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when both alleles are identical (RR, rr)

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heterozygous

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When the alleles are different (Rr)

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Mendel's Laws of Inheritance

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from the basic genetic principles Mendel

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Law of Segregation

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during meiosis the chromosome pairs separate so that each newly formed gamete receives one chromosome form each pair

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Law of Independent Assortment

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During meiosis, the members of different pairs of alleles assort independently into gametes. The segregation of a pair of chromosomes does not influence the segregation of other pairs of chromosomes in the same sex cell

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Punnet Square

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used to figure out all possible results of mating between two individuals

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Incomplete dominance

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when one allele is not completely dominant over another

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codominance

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when both alleles are fully expressed in a phenotype (RW)

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sex-linked traits

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genes that occur on the sex chromosome

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carrier

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a person or other organism that possesses a particular gene, especially as a single copy whose effect is masked by a dominant allele, so that the associated characteristic (such as a hereditary disease) is not displayed but may be passed to offspring

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10 Mendelian Traits in Humans

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Tongue Rolling Able to roll (R) Unable to roll (r) Freckles Have freckles (F) No freckles (f) Widow’s peak Widow’s peak (W) Straight (w) Earlobe Free hanging (A) Attached(a)

Cleft chin Have cleft (C) No cleft (c)

Thumb Hitchhiker’s (H) Straight (h)

Dimples Dimples (D) No dimples (d) Interlocking fingers (when hands are clasped) Left thumb on top (L) Right thumb on top (l)

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Autosomal Dominat

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is one of several ways that a trait or disorder can be passed down through families. If a disease is autosomal dominant, it means you only need to get the abnormal gene from one parent in order for you to inherit the disease

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autosomal recessive

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is one of several ways that a trait, disorder, or disease can be passed down through families. An autosomal recessivedisorder means two copies of an abnormal gene must be present in order for the disease or trait to develop

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x-linked recessive

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inheritance is a mode of inheritance in which a mutation in a gene on the X chromosome causes the phenotype to be expressed in males (who are necessarily heterozygous for the gene mutation because they have one X and one Y chromosome) and in females who are homozygous for the gene mutation

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ABO Blood group/blood types

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is a multiple allele system located on chromosome 9 and has three possible alleles A,B, and O

A&B are codominant

O is recessive

Possible Phenotypes: Type AB (AB), Type B(BB, BO) , Type A (AA, AO), Type O (O,O)

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universal donors/recipients

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universal recipients can receive blood from any other blood type b/c they have AB antigens

universal

universal donors because they don't have antigens can give to any other blood type but can only get blood transfusions from their own

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antigen

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a toxin or other foreign substance that induces an immune response in the body, especially the production of antibodies

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pedigree analysis

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a diagram that shows family relationships over several generations, which allows the transmission of a genetic trait to be traced

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hemophilia

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a medical condition in which the ability of the blood to clot is severely reduced, causing the sufferer to bleed severely from even a slight injury. The condition is typically caused by a hereditary lack of a coagulation factor, most often factor VIII

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sickle-cell anemia

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a severe hereditary form of anemia in which a mutated form of hemoglobin distorts the red blood cells into a crescent shape at low oxygen levels. It is most common among those of African descent

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natural selection

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the process whereby organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring. The theory of its action was first fully expounded by Charles Darwin and is now believed to be the main process that brings about evolution.

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mutation

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the changing of the structure of a gene, resulting in a variant form that may be transmitted to subsequent generations, caused by the alteration of single base units in DNA, or the deletion, insertion, or rearrangement of larger sections of genes or chromosomes

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cartilage

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has a poor blood supply, and has more collagen and elastic fibers than blood

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bone

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has excellent blood supply and is highly mineralized with fewer collagen fibers which gives bones its rigid structure

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fibrous

cartilaginous
,and synovial joints

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fibrous joints: are connected by short, tough fibrous tissues that are immovable

cartilaginous joints: are connected by cartilage and are slightly moveable

synovial joints: are freely moveable joints that are surrounded by a fibrous capsule lined with a synovial membrane, which secretes a lubricating synovial fluid

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bonemarkings

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compact (cortical) bone

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the smooth and homogeneous bone on the outside surface

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cancellous bone

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the porous bone beneath the hard surface, composed of small trabeculae

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trabeculae

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bars of bone that resemble a framework of steel, very strong, allow the bone to still have a light weight

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long bones

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have a typical structure

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humerus, radius, ulna

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humerus, radius, ulna are types of synovial joints

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femur, tibia, fibula

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femur, tibia, fibula

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diaphysis

epiphysis

part of long bone

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diaphysis: shaft of the long bone, the smooth surface is composed of compact bone

epiphysis: ends of the long bone, a thin layer of compact bone with cancellous bone underneath

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epiphyseal plate (growth plate)

part of long bone

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a thin layer of cartilage b/t the diaphysis and the epiphysis that provides for longitudinal growth ,

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marrow/medullary cavity

part of long bone

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central hollowed-out region, containing yellow (lipids) and red blood cells bone marrow

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periosteum

part of long bone

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a tough membrane surrounding the outside of the bone shaft but not the articular ends

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outer table

bones of skull

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smooth compact bone on the outer surface

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inner table

bones of skull

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smooth compact bone on the inside surface

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axial skeleton

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the bones of the skull, thorax/chest, and vetebral column

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appendicular skeleton

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the bones of the pectoral, shoulder girdle, upper limbs, pelvic girdle, and lower limbs

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sagittal plane

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runs longitudinally, dividing the body into left and right parts. If the parts are equal than it is called the median plane

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frontal or coronal plane

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runs longitudinally, dividing the body into front and back

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transverse plane

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runs horizontally, dividing the body into top and bottom or up or down

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directional terminology

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superior, inferior=up and down

anterior, posterior=front to back

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body movements

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