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173 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Behaviorism
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field of psychology that concentrates on observable, measurable behaviors and not on mental processes
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Biopsychologist
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specialist who tries to explain behavior in terms of biological factors, such as electrical and chemical activities in the nervous system, the effects of drugs and hormones, genetics, and evolutionary pressures
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Clinical psychologist
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someone with an advanced degree in psychology, with a specialty in understanding and helping people with psychological problems
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Clinical social worker
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person with a degree in social work instead of psychology, who helps people with psychological problems in ways similar to those of a clinical psychologist
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Cognition
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processes of thinking, gaining knowledge, and dealing with knowledge
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Cognitive psychologist
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specialist who studies thought processes and the acquisition of knowledge
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Comparative psychologist
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specialist who compares different animal species
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Counseling psychologist
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someone trained to help people with educational, vocational, marriage, health-related, and other decisions
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Cross-cultural psychologist
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a psychologist who compares the behavior of people from different cultures
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Determinism
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assumption that all behavior has a cause, or determinant, in the observable world
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Developmental psychologist
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specialist who studies the behavioral capacities of different ages and how behavior changes with age
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Dualism
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view that the mind is separate from the brain
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Ergonomist
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psychologist with engineering skills who works to facilitate the operation of machinery so that the average person can use it as efficiently and as safely as possible
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Evolutionary psychologist
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one who tries to explain behavior in terms of the evolutionary history of the species, including reasons evolution might have favored a tendency to act in particular ways
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Forensic psychologist
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one who provides advice and consultation to police, lawyers, courts, or other parts of the criminal justice system
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Free will
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doctrine that behavior is caused by a person’s independent decisions, not by external determinants
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Functionalism
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attempt to understand how mental processes produce useful behaviors
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Industrial/organizational (I/O) psychology
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psychological study of people at work
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Introspection
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looking within oneself
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Learning and motivation
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study of how behavior depends on the outcomes of past behaviors and on current motivations
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Mind-brain problem
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philosophical question of how the conscious mind is related to the physical nervous system, including the brain
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Monism
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view that consciousness is inseparable from the physical brain
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Nature-nurture issue
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question of the relative roles played by heredity (nature) and environment (nurture) in determining differences in behavior
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Psychiatry
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branch of medicine that deals with emotional disturbances
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Psychoanalyst
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psychotherapist who relies heavily on the theories of Sigmund Freud
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Psychology
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systematic study of behavior and experience
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Psychophysical function
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mathematical description of the relationship between the physical properties of a stimulus and its perceived properties
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School psychologist
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specialist in the psychological condition of students
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Social psychologist
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psychologist who studies social behavior and how individuals influence other people and are influenced by other people
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Structuralism
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Structuralism
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95% confidence interval
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range within which the true population mean lies with 95% certainty
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Blind observer observer
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who can record data without knowing what the researcher has predicted
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Burden of proof
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obligation to present evidence to support one’s claim
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Case history
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thorough description of a single individual, including information on both past experiences and current behavior
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Control group
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group treated in the same way as the experimental group except for the procedure that the experiment is designed to test
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Convenience sample
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group chosen because of its ease of study
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Correlation
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measure of the relationship between two variables, which are both outside the investigator’s control
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Correlation coefficient
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mathematical estimate of the relationship between two variables, ranging from +1 (perfect positive relationship) to 0 (no linear relationship) to -1 (perfect negative relationship)
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Correlational study
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procedure in which investigators measure the correlation between two variables without controlling either of them
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Cross-cultural samples
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groups of people from at least two cultures
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Deduction
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process of deriving a conclusion from premises already accepted
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Demand characteristics
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cues that tell a subject what is expected of him or her and what the experimenter hopes to find
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Dependent variable
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item that an experimenter measures to determine how changes in the independent variable affect it
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Descriptive statistics
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mathematical summaries of results, such as measures of the average and the amount of variation
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Double-blind study
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study in which neither the observer nor the subjects know which subjects received which treatment
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Experimental group
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group that receives the treatment that an experiment is designed to test
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Experimenter bias
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tendency of an experimenter to unintentionally distort procedures or results based on the experimenter’s own expectations of the outcome of the study
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Experiments
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studies in which the investigator manipulates at least one variable while measuring at least one other variable
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Extrasensory perception (ESP)
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alleged ability of certain people to acquire information without using any sense organ and without receiving any form of physical energy
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Falsifiable
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making sufficiently precise predictions that we can at least imagine evidence that would contradict the theory (if anyone had obtained such evidence)
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Illusory correlation
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apparent relationship based on casual observations of unrelated or weakly related events
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Independent variable
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in an experiment the item that an experimenter manipulates to determine how it affects the dependent variable
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Induction
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process of inferring a general principle from observations
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Inferential statistics
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statements about large populations based on inferences from small samples
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Informed consent
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subject’s agreement to take part in an experiment after being told what to expect
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Mode
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score that occurs most frequently in a distribution of scores
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Meta-analysis
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method of taking the results of many experiments, weighting each one in proportion to the number of participants, and determining the overall average effect
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Naturalistic observation
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careful examination of what many people or nonhuman animals do under natural conditions
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Normal distribution (or normal curve)
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symmetrical frequency of scores clustered around the mean
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Operational definition
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definition that specifies the operations (or procedures) used to produce or measure something; a way to give it a numerical value
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Parsimony
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(literally, stinginess) scientists’ preference for the theory that explains the results using the simplest assumptions
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Random assignment
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chance procedure for assigning subjects to groups so that every subject has the same probability as any other subject of being assigned to a particular group
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Random sample
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group of people picked in random fashion so that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected
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Parsimony
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(literally, stinginess) scientists’ preference for the theory that explains the results using the simplest assumptions
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Range
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statement of the highest and lowest scores in a distribution of scores
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Random assignment
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chance procedure for assigning subjects to groups so that every subject has the same probability as any other subject of being assigned to a particular group
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Replicable result
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result that can be repeated (at least approximately) by any competent investigator who follows the same procedures used in the original study
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Random sample
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group of people picked in random fashion so that every individual in the population has an equal chance of being selected
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Representative sample
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selection of the population chosen to match the entire population with regard to specific variables
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Range
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statement of the highest and lowest scores in a distribution of scores
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Single-blind study
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study in which either the observer or the subjects are unaware of which subjects received which treatment
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Replicable result
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result that can be repeated (at least approximately) by any competent investigator who follows the same procedures used in the original study
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Action potential
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excitation that travels along an axon at a constant strength, no matter how far it must travel
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Alcohol
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class of molecules that includes methanol, ethanol, propyl alcohol (rubbing alcohol), and others
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Autonomic nervous system
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section of the nervous system that controls the functioning of the internal organs, such as the heart
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Axon
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single, long, thin, straight fiber that transmits information from a neuron to other neurons or to muscle cells
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Binding problem
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question of how separate brain areas combine forces to produce a unified perception of a single object
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Cell body
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part of the neuron that contains the nucleus of the cell
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Central nervous system
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brain and spinal cord
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Cerebellum
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(Latin for “little brain”) hindbrain structure that is active in the control of movement, especially for complex, rapid motor skills and behaviors that require precise timing
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Cerebral cortex
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outer surface of the forebrain
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Corpus callosum
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large set of axons connecting the left and right hemispheres of the cerebral cortex and thus enabling the two hemispheres to communicate with each other
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Dendrite
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one of the widely branching structures of a neuron that receive transmissions from other neurons
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Depressants
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drugs that predominantly decrease arousal
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Dopamine
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neurotransmitter that promotes activity levels and facilitates movement
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Electroencephalograph (EEG)
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device that measures and amplifies slight electrical changes on the scalp that reflect brain activity
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Endocrine system
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set of glands that produce hormones and release them into the bloodstream
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Endorphins
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chemicals produced by the brain that have effects resembling those of opiates, such as inhibiting pain
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Epilepsy
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condition characterized by abnormal rhythmic activity of brain neurons
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Evolutionary explanation
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an explanation that relates behavior to the evolutionary history of the species
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Frontal lobe
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portion of each cerebral hemisphere at the anterior pole, with sections that control movement and certain aspects of memory
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Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
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technique that uses magnetic detectors outside the head to measure the amounts of hemoglobin, with and without oxygen, in different parts of the brain and thereby provides an indication of current activity levels in various brain areas
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Glia
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cell of the nervous system that insulates neurons, removes waste materials (e.g., dead cells), and performs other supportive functions
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Hallucinogens
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drugs that induce sensory distortions
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Hemisphere
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left or right half of the brain
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Hormone
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chemical released by glands and conveyed by the blood to other parts of the body, where it alters activity
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Magnetoencephalograph (MEG)
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device that records rapid magnetic changes during brain activity
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Medulla
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structure that is located in the hindbrain and is an elaboration of the spinal cord; controls many muscles in the head and several life-preserving functions, such as breathing
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Narcotics
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drugs that produce drowsiness, insensitivity to pain, and decreased responsiveness to events
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Neurons
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cells of the nervous system that receive information and transmit it to other cells by conducting electrochemical impulses
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Neurotransmitters
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chemicals that are stored in the terminal of an axon and that, when released, activate receptors of other neurons
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Occipital lobe
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rear portion of each cerebral hemisphere, critical for vision
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Opiates
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either drugs derived from the opium poppy or synthetic drugs that produce effects similar to those of opium derivatives
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Parietal lobe
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portion of each cerebral hemisphere; the main receiving area for the sense of touch and for the awareness of one’s own body and perception of location of the body in space
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Parkinson’s disease
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condition that affects about 1% of people over the age of 50; the main symptoms are difficulty initiating voluntary movement, slowness of movement, tremors, rigidity, and depressed mood
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Peripheral nervous system
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bundles of axons that convey messages between the spinal cord and the rest of the body
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Physiological explanation
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an explanation describes the mechanism that produces a behavior
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Pons
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structure adjacent to the medulla that receives sensory input from the head and controls many muscles in the head
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Positron-emission tomography (PET)
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technique that provides a high-resolution image of brain activity by recording radioactivity emitted from injected chemicals
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Postsynaptic neuron
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neuron on the receiving end of a synapse
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Prefrontal cortex
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area in the anterior portion of the frontal lobes, critical for planning movements and for certain aspects of memory
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Primary motor cortex
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strip in the posterior (rear) part of the frontal cortex that controls fine movements, such as hand and finger movements
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Primary somatosensory cortex
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strip in the anterior (forward) part of the parietal lobe that receives most touch sensations and other information about the body
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Reflexes
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rapid, automatic responses to stimuli
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Resting potential
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electrical polarization that ordinarily occurs across the membrane of an axon that is not undergoing an action potential
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Spinal cord
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part of the central nervous system that communicates with sensory neurons and motor neurons below the level of the head
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Stem cells
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undifferentiated cells
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Stimulants
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drugs that boost energy, heighten alertness, increase activity, and produce a pleasant feeling
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Synapse
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specialized junction between one neuron and another; at this point one neuron releases a neurotransmitter, which either excites or inhibits the next neuron
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Temporal lobe
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portion of each cerebral hemisphere; the main processing area for hearing, complex aspects of vision, and certain aspects of emotional behavior
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Terminal bouton
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bulge at the end of an axon from which the axon releases a chemical called a neurotransmitter
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Tranquilizers (or anxiolytic drugs)
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medications that help people to relax
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Absolute sensory threshold
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intensity at which a given individual can detect a sensory stimulus 50% of the time; a low threshold indicates the ability to detect faint stimuli
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Accommodation of the lens
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adjustment of the thickness of the lens to focus on objects at different distances
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Binocular cues
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visual cues that depend on the action of both eyes
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Blind spot
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areas where the optic nerve exits the retina
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Brightness contrast
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increase or decrease in an object’s apparent brightness because of the effects of objects around it
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Cataract
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disorder in which the lens of the eye becomes cloudy
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Closure
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in Gestalt psychology tendency to imagine the rest of an incomplete, familiar figure
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Color constancy
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tendency of an object to appear nearly the same color under a variety of lighting conditions
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Common fate
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tendency to perceive objects as part of the same group if they change or move in similar ways at the same time
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Cones
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visual receptors that are adapted for color vision, daytime vision, and detailed vision
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Continuation
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in Gestalt psychology the tendency to fill in the gaps in an interrupted line
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Convergence
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degree to which the eyes turn in to focus on a close object
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Cornea
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rigid, transparent structure on the surface of the eyeball
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Dark adaptation
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gradual improvement in the ability to see in dim light
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Depth perception
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perception of distance, which enables us to experience the world in three dimensions
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Electromagnetic spectrum
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continuum of all the frequencies of radiated energy,
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Feature detector
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neuron in the visual system of the brain that responds to the presence of a certain simple feature, such as a horizontal line
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Figure and ground
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object and its background
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Fovea
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central part of the retina that has a greater density of receptors, especially cones, than any other part of the retina
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Ganglion cells
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neurons in the eye that receive input from bipolar cells, which in turn receive their input from the visual receptors
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Gestalt psychology
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approach to psychology that seeks to explain how we perceive overall patterns
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Glaucoma
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condition characterized by increased pressure within the eyeball, resulting in damage to the optic nerve and therefore a loss of vision
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Good figure
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in Gestalt psychology the tendency to perceive simple, symmetrical figures
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Hyperopia
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farsightedness; the inability to focus on nearby objects
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Induced movement
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perception that an object is moving and the background is stationary when in fact the object is stationary and the background is moving
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Iris
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colored structure on the surface of the eye, surrounding the pupil
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Lens
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flexible structure that can vary its thickness to enable the eye to focus on objects at different distances
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Monocular cues
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visual cues that are just as effective with one eye as with both
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Moon illusion
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apparent difference between the size of the moon at the horizon and its size when viewed higher in the sky
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Myopia
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nearsightedness; the inability to focus on distant objects
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Negative afterimage
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color that a person sees after staring at its opposite color for a while
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Opponent-process theory
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theory that we perceive color in terms of a system of paired opposites: red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus black
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Optic nerve
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paired opposites: red versus green, yellow versus blue, and white versus
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Optical illusion
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misinterpretation of a visual stimulus as being larger or smaller, or straighter or more curved, than it really is
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Perception
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interpretation of sensory information
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Pitch
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perception closely related to the frequency of sound waves
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Presbyopia
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decreased flexibility of the lens and therefore the inability to focus on nearby objects
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Proximity
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(a) in Gestalt psychology the tendency to perceive objects that are close together as belonging to a group (b) in social psychology the tendency to choose as friends people with whom we come in frequent contact
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Pupil
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adjustable opening in the eye through which light enters
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Receptor
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specialized cell that converts environmental energies into signals for the nervous system
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Retina
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layer of visual receptors covering the back surface of the eyeball
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Retinal disparity
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difference in the apparent position of an object as seen by the left and right retinas
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Retinex theory
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theory that color perception results from the cerebral cortex’s comparison of various retinal patterns
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Reversible figure
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stimulus that you can perceive in more than one way
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Rods
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visual receptors that are adapted for vision in dim light
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Sensation
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conversion of energy from the environment into a pattern of response by the nervous system
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Similarity
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Gestalt psychology the tendency to perceive objects that resemble each other as belonging to a group
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Stimuli
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energy in the environment that affects what we do
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Stroboscopic movement
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illusion of movement created by a rapid succession of stationary images
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Trichromatic theory (Young-Helmholtz theory)
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theory that color vision depends on the relative rate of response of three types of cones
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Waterfall illusion
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phenomenon in which prolonged staring at a waterfall and then looking at nearby cliffs causes those cliffs to appear flowing upward
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