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306 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the nervous system?
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The bodies primary communication and control system
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How is the nervous system divided?
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According to structural and functional categories.
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Structural organization of Central Nervous System (CNS)
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Brain; Spinal Cord
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Structural organizatoin of Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
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Cranial Nerves; Spinal Nerves; Ganglia
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Sensory (Afferent) Division
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Transmit information FROM RECEPTORS TO CNS; divided into somatic nad visceral sensory
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Motor (Efferent) Division
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Transmit information FROM CNS TO MUSCLES OR GLANDS; divided into somatic and autonomic motor
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Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis
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Also called ALS or Lou Gehrig Disease; fatal degeneration of the somatic motor system; atrophied muscles cause breathing, speaking, and swallowing difficulties; no effective treatment of cure exists
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Neurons
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Excitable cells that transmit impulses
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Glial Cells
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nonexcitable cells that support and protect the neurons
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Primary tumor of the CNS
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Tumors may form in the meninges (meningiomas) or glial cells (gliomas); neurons are incapable of becoming tumors because they can't devide
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Secondary Tumor of the CNS
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Tumor forms in another site but has spread to the brain (lung, skin or breast cancers)
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Neuron characteristics
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High Metabolic Rate-need constant glucose and oxygen; longevity-live and function for over 100 years; nonmitotic during fetal development lose ability to divide
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Dendrites
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Carry impulses TOWARDS the cell body; soma can have only one or many dendrites; receive input and transfer to cell body for processing
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Cell body
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Also called the SOMA; neuron control center; contains nucleus and organelles; comprise "gray matter"; form clusters in PNS called ganglion
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Axons
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Most neurons have one axon (anaxonic neurons have no axon); the axon is also called the nerve fiber; carry impulses AWAY from cell body to another cell; transmits its output information to other cells; Ends branch into synaptic knobs
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Unipolar Neuron
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Sensory Neurons
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Bipolar Neurons
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Special senses; uncommon in humans
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Multipolar
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Motor neurons; most common type
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Sensory (afferent) Neuron
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from sensory receptors TO CNS
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Interneurons
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Lie between motor and sensroy neurons; entirely confined to CNS
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Motor (efferent) Neurons
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FROM CNS to muscles or glands
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Astrocyte Glial Cell (CNS)
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control ionic environment; helps form blood-brain barrier
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Ependymal Glial Cell (CNS)
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Help produce and circulate cerebral spinal fluid (CSF)
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Microglial Cell (CNS)
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Macrophages of CNS
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Olgodendrocyte Glial Cell (CNS)
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Myelin sheaths in CNS
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Satellite glial cell (PNS)
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protects and regulates nutrients for cell bodies in ganglia
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Neurolemmocyte glial cell (PNS)
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Called Schwann cell- myelinate PNS axons
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Myelin Sheath
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Protective, white, fatty, coating; supports, protects, and insulates; greatly increases speed of conduction; nerve impulses jump from node to node; neurofibril nodes or "nodes of Ranvier"
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Multiple Sclerosis
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Patches of myelin in brain and spinal cord destroyed; affects 1 out of every 1000 people; symptoms: blindness, weakness, clumsiness
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Nerves
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A cable-like bundle of parallel axons; There are 3 connective tissue wrappings around the nerve
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Endoneurium
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Surrounds individual axon
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Perineurium
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Surrounds individual fascicles
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Epineurium
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surrounds whole nerve
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PNS Axon regeneration
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Axons can regenerate if only minor damage has occurred
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Nerve regeneration
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Recent research with rats has achieved partial restoration of severed spinal cords using transplanted olfactory nerves to "bridge" the gap; research indicates that neural stem cells may be able to regenerate CNS axons
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Synapses
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Site at which neurons communicate with other neurons, glands or muscles; Has three parts: Presynaptic neuron, synaptic cleft, postsynaptic neuron
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Presynaptic neuron
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Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters
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Anencephaly
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Disorder at the cranial end of the neural tube; substantial or complete absence of a brain; only brain stem forms; infants rarely live longer than a few hours following birth; usually detected with prenatal ultrsound
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Spina Bifida
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Disorder at the caudal end of the neural tube; vertebral arch is not fully formed; may be mild or severe; increased intake of B12 and folic acid decreases incidence of spina bifida
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What is a Crainial Meninge?
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Connective tissue layers surrounding brain and spinal cord
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What are the functions of the crainial meninges?
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Separate brain from skull; enclose and protect blood vessels supplying the brain; contain and circulate cerebrospinal fluid
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Which terms are associated with Brain ventricles?
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Lateral ventricles, septum pellucidum, third ventrical, cerebral aqueduct, fourth ventricle, choroid plexus
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Cerebral Spinal Fluid (CSF)
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Produced in the choroid plexus; made of ependymal cells; clear, colorless fluid; circulates through the ventricles
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Functions of CSF
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Buoyancy: Reduces brain weight by 95%; Protection: provides liquid cushion; Environmental stability: Transports nutrients, chemical messengers, and removes wastes.
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Hydrocephalus
:Water on the Brain" |
Excessive CSF; can result from either obstrucion of CSF flow or problems with the arachnoid villi intrinsically; can be treated by inserting ventriculoperitoneal shunt (VP) or endoscopic thrid ventriculostomy (ETV)
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Cerebrum
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Location of conscious thought processes; Divided into hemispheres that are connected by the corpus callosum; Gray Matter (cortex) houses motor neurons cell bodies; white matter houses myelinated axons; gyri and sulci account for large surface area
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Frontal Lobe
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Decision making, personality, verbal communication, voluntary motor control of skeletal muscles
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Parietal Lobe
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Sensory interpretation of textures and shapes, understanding speech
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Temporal Lobe
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Auditory and olfactory experience
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Occipital
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Vission
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Insula lobe
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Taste, memory
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Frontal Lobotomy
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"cure" for people who were violent or profoundly disturbed; thousands were performed between the 1930s and 1950s; replaced by depression medications and other psychiatic medications
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Motor Areas of brain:
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Pre central gyrus
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Sensory Areas of brain
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Post central gyrus
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Association areas of brain
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all cortical regions other than primary sensory areas and motor areas
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Homunculus
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Somatopy: point by point correspondence between a body area and the CNS
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Cerebral white matter
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Association tracts connect different parts of the same hemisphere; commissural tracts connect hemispheres (corpus callosum); Projection tracts run verticaly and convey sensory and motor information
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Diencephalon
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Consists of the Thalamus, Epithalamus, and the hypothalamus; it is composed primarily of gray matter
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Epithalamus
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Forms posteior roof of diencephalon and covers the third ventricle; is composed of the habenular nucei and Pineal gland:
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Habenular Nuclei
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relays signals from the limbic system and is involved in the visceral and emtional responses to odors.
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Thalamus
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Lie on either side of the third ventricel; principle relay point for sensory and motor information into cerebrum; interthalamic adhesion (intermediate mass)
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Hypothalamus
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Functions: BEETSHAM
Behavior, Endocrine, Emotion, Temperature control, Sleep/Wake cycle, Hunger/Thirst, Autonomic control, Memory; Infundibulum and Pituitary gland |
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Pineal Gland
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Secretes Melatonin, regulates circadian rhythms
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Cerebellum
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Smoothes and coordinates body movements via: information on equilibrium and posture. Information on current movement. Proprioception. Consists of Cerebellar hemispheres, Vermis, Arbor Vitae.
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Brain Stem
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"Primitive Brain", bidirectional passageway between cerebrum and spinal cord; contains many autonomic and reflex centers essential fro survival; includes the mesencephalon, pons, and medulla oblongata
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Medulla Oblongata
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Vasomotor center, Cardiac center, Respiratory center, also regulates coughing, sneezing, gagging, vomiting, etc. Point of attachment for cranial nerves
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Limbic System
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"Emotional Brain"; involved in motivation, emotion and memory
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Alzheimers Disease
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Progressive degenerative disease of the brain. Results in Dementia; Between 5% and 15% of people over age 65 develop this disease. Symptoms include: Memory loss; depression; disorientation; Neurofibrillary tangle; Amyloid Precursor Proteins (APP) Senile plaques
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Parkinson Disease
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Affects muscle movement and balance; symptoms include stiff posture, expressionless face, slow movements, resting tremor, and a shuffling gait; caused by the lack of neurotransmitter dopamine
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Spinal Cord
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Gray matter is Deep: Central canal, and anterior, lateral, and posterior horns; White matter is superficial: Anterior, lateral and posterior funiculi; Anterior median fissure; Posterior median sulcus; Dorsal root ganglion; meninges
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Sensation
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Conscious awareness of incoming sensory information is called sensation
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What are stimuli detected by?
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Receptors
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What are the two classes of receptors
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General senses (temperature, pain, touch, stretch, and pressure; Special senses (gustation, olfaction, vision, equilibrium, and audition)
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Chemoreceptors
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Detect chemical molecules
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Thermoreceptors
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Detect changes in temperatures
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Photoreceptors
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Detect changes in light
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Mechanoreceptors
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Detect mechanical changes like touch, pressure, vibration and stretch. i.e. Proprioceptors-awareness of the position and that state of contraction of muscles.
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Baroreceptors
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Detect changes in pressure within body structures
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Nociceptors
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Detect pain
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General Sense: Tactile Receptors
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Most numerous type of receptor; mechanoreceptors that react to touch, pressure, and vibration, located in the dermis and hypodermis
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Gustation
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Taste Buds (chemoreceptors); Located on tongue, posterior palate, cheeks, pharynx, epiglottis; occure in papillae:
Filiform-anterior 2/3 tongue, no taste buds Fungiform-tip and sides of tongue, largest, least numerous type, contain most taste buds Foliate-lateral tongue, used during infancy and early childhood About age 50 the ability to distinguish taste begins to decline |
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Gustatory Cells
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chemoreceptor cells; replaced every 7-10 days; gustatory microvillus (taste hair)
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Supporting cells
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Insulate gustatory cells from each other and surrounding epithelium
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Basal Cells
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Immature; replace other two types of cells
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Gustatory Sensations
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Salty, sweet, sour, bitter, and umami "flavors" detected over broad regions of the tongue.
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Facial Nerve (VII)
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Innervates anterior 2/3 of tongue
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Glossopharyngeal nerve (IX)
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Innervates posterior 1/3 of tongue
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Olefaction
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Contains olfactory neurons, supporting cells and basal cells. 50-60 different primary odors and thousands of chemcial stiumuli can be recognized
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Olfactory neurons
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Chemoreceptors, bipolar neurons
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Supporting cells (olfaction)
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surround olfactory neurons
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Basal cells
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Stem cells for renewal of other cells
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Vision
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Accessory structures of the eye: conjunctiva, eyebrow, eyelashes, and palpebrae (eyelid), Lacrimal glands
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Conjunctiva
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Provide a superficial covering over its anterior exposed surface
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Eyebrows, eyelashes, and palpebrae (eyelid)
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Prevent foreign objects from coming into contact with the eye
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Lacrimal glands
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Keep the exposed surface moist, clean, and lubricated
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Eye structures
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Lens, pupil, anterior and posterior chambers (aqueous humor), Vitreous chamber (vitreous humor), optic nerve
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Cataracts
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Major cause of blindness; causes include aging, diabetes, UV exposure, glaucoma and eye infections, articial lens
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Fibrous TUnic
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Slcera, cornea
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Vascular tunic
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Choroid, cilliary body, cilliary zonules (suspensory ligaments)
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Neural tunic
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Retina, photoreceptors
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Photoreceptors
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Neural layer of retina; Rod cells, Cone cells
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Rod Cells
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Function in dim light, Don't provide sharpvision or color vision. 100 Million per eye
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Cone Cells
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Operate best in bright light, Provide high acuity color vision. 10 million per eye
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Regions of the Retina
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Macula Lutea, Fovea centralis, optic disc
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Macula Lutea
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contains MOSTLY cones
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Fovea centralis
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contains ONLY cones, maximal visual acuity
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Optic disc
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Axons and ganglion cells converge to exit eye; blind spot
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External Ear Structures
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Defined from the auricle to the tympanic membrane
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External auditory meatus
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narrow external opening prevents large objects from entering
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Ceruminous glands
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Produce CERUMEN; cerumen + dead skin cells= earwax; earwax helps reduce infection by impeding microorganism growth
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Middle ear structures
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Air filled tympanic cavity; tympanic membrane; tensor tympani muscle and stapedius, auditory ossicles; oval window, round window, auditory tube
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auditory tube
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connects ear to nasopharynx
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inner ear structures
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vestibule, semicircular canals, cochlea, vestibular and cochlear nerves
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vestibule
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utricle and saccule; detect acceleration and deceleration
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semicircular canals
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detect rotational movements
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cochlea
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audition
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31 pairs of spinal nerves
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made of sensory afferent and motor efferent neurons; sensory afferent neurons enter the dorsal spinal cord; motor eferrent neurons exit the ventral spinal cord
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Dermatomes
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A specific segment of skin supplied by a single spinal nerve; all spinal nerves EXCEPT for C1 innervate a segment of skin, and each of these nerves is associated with a dermtome; involved in referred visceral pain: An inflamed appendix may cause pain in the T10 dermatome
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Shingles
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During initial infection the Chickenpox virus sometimes leave the skin and invade the posterior root ganglia of the spinal cord; virus remains latent until adulthood; rash of scaly, painful blisters (usually confined to one or a few adjacent dermatomes)
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Nerve Plexuses
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A network of interweaving spinal nerves; split into multiple "named nerves that inneravte various body structures; principal plexuses (left and right): Cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral
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Cervical Plexus
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Spinal nerves C1 - C4; innervate anterior neck and parts of head and shoudlers; Phrenic nerve: innervates the diaphragm
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Brachial Plexus
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Spinal nerves C5-T1; innervate pectoral girdle and upper limbs; Median nerve-carpal tunnel syndrome; ulnar nerve; radial nerve; musculocutaneous nerve
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Lumbar Plexus
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Spinal nerves L1-L4; inneravation of lower limb; Femoral nerve innervates anterior muscles of thigh
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Sacral Plexus
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Spinal Nerves L4-S4; innervations of lower limb; sciatic nerve is longest and largest nerve in body; supplies all of lower limp except anterior and medial regions of the thigh; divides into the tibial and common fibular nerve
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Reflexes
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Rapid, automatic, involuntary reactions of muscles or glands to a stimulus
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What are the similar properties of all reflexes
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A stimulus is required to initiate a response to sensory input; a rapid resonse requires that few neurons be involved and synaptic delay be minimal; an automatic response occurs the same way every time
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Components of a Reflex Arc
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Stimulus activates receptor; Travels through sensory afferent neuron from the PNS to the CNS; Interneurons (in complex reflexes); travels through motor efferent neuron from the CNS to PNS; effector responds to nerve impulse
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Monosynaptic Reflex
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The simplest of all reflexes; no interneurons; the patelar reflex is an example
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PPolysynaptic
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More complex neural pathways that exhibit a number of synapses involving interneurons within the reflex arc; because this reflex arc has more components, there is a more prolonged delay between stimulus and response
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Autonomic Nervous System Structure
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Chain of Two motor Neurons; divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions
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Preganglionic neuron
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Cell body in spinal cord or brain; axon synapses with postganglionic neuron; one of two motor neurons in autonomic nervous system
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Postganglionic neuron
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Peripheral autonomic ganglion; axon extends to visceral organs
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Dual innervation
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Most organs are innervated by both the sympathetic and parasympathetic axons; actions each system usually oppose each other: exert antagonistic effects on the same organ; opposing effects are also achieved by increasing or decreasing activity in one division
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Endocrine Glands
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Develop from all 3 embryonic germ layers, Ductless glands; secrete hormones directly into the blood stream that bind to receptors on cells to help maintain homeostasis; endocrinology is the study of endocrine glands and hormones
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EEndocrine vs Nervous System
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Has a slower response but lasts longer; has widespread general effects; can affect any cell in the body; acts using hormones
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Hormones
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Messenger molecules released into the blood by endocrine glands that regulate specific body functions; Three types: peptide, steroids, biogenic Amines.
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Peptide
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Chains of amino acids, most common hormone type
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Steroids
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Lipid derived from cholesterol
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Biogenic Amines
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Produced by altering a specific amino acid
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Pituitary Gland (Hypophysis) "master gland"
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Composed of Anterior Pituitary; Posterior Pituitary; Hypophyseal portal system
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Anterior pituitary
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Composed of glandular tissue
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Posterior pituitary
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part of the brain
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Hypophyseal portal system
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Portal veins that shunts blood carrying regulatory hormones from hypothalamus to pituitary before blood returns to the heart
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Posterior pituitary Hormones
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Hormones are made in the hypothalamus; Posterior pituitary functions to store hormones; antidiuretic hormone; oxytocin
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Intidiuretic hormone
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Initiates wter reabsorption during dehydration; increases BP through vasoconstriction; hypersecretion causes edema; hypsecretion causes diabetes insipidus
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Oxytocin
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Induces smooth muscle contraction in reproductive organs, uterine contracyions and milk ejections
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Pituitary Dwarfism
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Hyposecretion of GH in children
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Pituitary Gigantism
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Hypersecretion of GH during childhood
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Acromegaly
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Hypersecretion of GH during adulthood (after epiphyeal plates have closed)
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Pineal gland
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Small, pine cone shaped structure at end of short stalk on roof of diencephalon; Produces Melatonin
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Thyroid Gland
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Butterfly shape; inferior to larynx; largest pure endocrine gland; produces Thyroid hormone (increases metabolic rate) and Calcitonin (lowers level of blood calcium; decreases osteoclast activity, increases osteoblast activity
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Endemic Goiter
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Dietary iodine deficiency
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Hyperthyroidism
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Excessive TH production; graves disease: loss of thyroid feedback control
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Hypothyroidism
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Decreased production of TH
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Parathyroid Glands
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Lie on posterior surface of thyroid gland; Produce Parathyroid hormone: Increases blood concentration of Calcium. Increases osteoclast activity; decreases osteoblast activity; opposite effect of calcitonin
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Thymus
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Located in lower neck and anterior thorax; produces thymic hormones: thymopoietin and thymosins; stimulates the differentiation, growth, and maturation of T lymphocytes.
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Adrenal Glands
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Pyramidal organs on kidney surface; adrenal cortex; adrenal medulla
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Adrenal cortex
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Aldosterone: mineral corticoid, water reabsorption; Cortisol: glucocorticoid, helps body deal with stressful situations
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Adrenal Medulla
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Epinephrine and norepinsphrine; both enhance flight or flight response
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Corticosteroids
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Act on immune system by blocking inflammation; also impede the function of white blood cells; cause cushing like effects
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CCushing Syndrome
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Hypersecretion of glucocorticoids (cortisol)
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Addison Disease
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Hyposecretion of glucocorticoids and sometimes mineralocorticoids. Symptoms include weight loss, general fatigue, hypotension, skin darkening
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Pancreas
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Located in posterior wall of abdominal cavity; pacreatic islets; produces glucagon, insulin, somatostatin, pancreatic polypepetide
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Glucagon
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alpha cells; glycogenbreakdwon in liver cells, increases blood glucose levles
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insulin
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Beta cells, signals body cells to take up glucose; decrease blood glucose levels
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Somatostatin
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Delta cells; slows release of insulin and glucagon
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Pancreatic Polypeptide
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F cells; supress somatostatin secretion
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Diabetes Mellitus
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Insufficient secretion of insulin or resistance of body cells to effects of insulin
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Type I DM
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Autoimmune, absent or diminished production and release of insulin by the pancreatic islet cells. "insulin dependent"; develops suddenly
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Type II
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Decreased insulin release or decreased insulin effectiveness; develops more slowly
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Gestational Diabetes
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Diabetes that develops during pregnancy; 20-50% chance of development of type II later in life
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Composition of blood
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Plasma; formed elements
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Plasma
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Straw-colored liquid compsed of water, proteins, and other solutes; makes up about 55% of blood
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Fomred elements
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Buffy coat; Erythrocytes
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Buffy coat
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Composed of leukocytes and thrombocytes; forms less than 1 % of a blood sample
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Erythrocytes
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Typically make up about 44% of blood
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Gematocrit
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Percentage of blood volume made of RED blood cells
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Typical values of Hematocrit
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Males:42-56%; Females 38%-46%; can vary with hormone changes and altitude
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Blood doping
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Athlete donates RBC to themselves; thought to favorably affect muscle performance; dangerous because of increased blood viscosity
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Functions of blood
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Transporation; regulation; protection
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Transporation function of blood
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oxygen and carbon dioxide RBC; nutrients, hormones, and waste products-plasma
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Regulation function of blood
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Absorbs heat and distributes throughout the body-plasma; constric and dialte to regulate temperature; regulateds body pH and fluid levels in cardiovascular system
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Protection function of blood
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Protects from infection-WBC's; transports antibodies-plasma; forms blood clots-platelets
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BBlood plasma
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Mixture of water, proteins, and solutes; serum is plasma with the protiens removed; water makes up about 92% of plasma volume. Facilitates transport of materials in the plasma
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Plasma Protiens
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Makes up about 7% of plasma; albumins; globulins; fibrinogen; regulatory proteins
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Albumins
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Most abundant plasma protien; regulate water movement between blood and interstitial fluid, transport proteins, hormones and lipids
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Globulins
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Binds, supports, and protect water insoluble hormones and ions; antibodies
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Fibrinogen
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Converts into fibrin, blood clot formation
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Regulatory proteins
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consists of enzymes and hormones
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Erythrocytes
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NOT a true cell (no nucleus or organelles); Biconcave discs; filled with hemoglobin to transport oxygen and carobon dioxide; Rouleau
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Boconcave discs
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allows gases to be loaded and unloaded efficiently
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Rouleau
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RBC's line up in single file as they pass through small vessels
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Blood types
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surface antigens identify blood type
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ABO blood group
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antigen A and B. A, B, AB, or O
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Rh blood group
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Antigen Rh; blood type Rh + or Rh - ; RhoGAM
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Blood transfusions
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Universal donor is O-, universal recipient is AB +
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Polycythemia
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Too many red blood cells; causes increase in viscosity of blood placing strain on the heart; therapeutic blood donations
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Anemia
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Too few RBC's leads to low oxygen; many types of anemia. Iron Deficiency Anemia from lack of iron or blood loss; sickle cell disease RBC is sickle shaped
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Leukocytes
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True cells; larger than erythrocytes; WBCs help initiate the immune response and defend against pathogents; Diapedesis (WBCs leave the bloodstream and enter tissues or squeeze bt endothelial cells); Chemotaxis: WBCs are attracted to site of infection by damaged cells, dead cells, or invading pathogens
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Granulocytes
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Neutrophils; Eosinophils; Basophils
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Neutrophils
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Eat infectious pathogens by secreting iysozyme
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Eosinophils
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Allergic reactions and Parasites
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Basophils
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Release histamine which causes allergy symptoms and heparin which inhibits clotting
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Agranulocytes
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Lymphocytes and monocytes
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Lymphocytes
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Reside in lymphatic tissue and produce immune response. B and T lymphocytes
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Monocytes
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Eat bacteria, cell fragments, dead cells, and debris
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Abnormal WBC count
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Normal WBC count is between 5000 and 10,000 per microliter of blood; Leukocytosis is high WBC; Leukopenia is low WBC count caused by Viral or bacterial infections or Leukemia
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Leukemia
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cancer in the leukocyte forming cells; abnormal development and proliferation of leukocytes; cancer cells take over bone marrow nad slow production of erythrocytes and thrombocytes. Causes anemia nad bleeding which is usually one of the first signs of leukemia
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Thrombocytes
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Also called platelets; cell fragments of megakaryocytes; platelets live for 8 to 10 days; blood clots are formed y fibrin from fibrinogen and platelets
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clotting disorders
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Thrombcytopenia and Hemophilia
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Thrombocytopenia
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Abnormally low concentration of platelets in blood. Results from damage to bone marrow, chemotherapy, leukemia, or over active spleen
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Hemophilia
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Lack of clotting factors; usually acquired genetically
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Hemopoiesis
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the production of formed elements; occurs in red marrow of bones; all blood cells arise from hemopoietic stem cells
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Heart
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Functions as the pump of the cardio system; mediates between the sytemic and pulmonary circuit, on average the heart beats 75 times per minute or 108,000 times a day; average cardica output is 5.24L/ minute
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The Heart II
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Atria; ventricles; pulmonary circuite; systemic circuit
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Atria
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receiving chambers
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ventricles
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pumping chambers
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pulmonary circuit
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vessels that carry blood to and from the lungs right atria and ventricle
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systemic circuit
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vessels that transport blood to and from the body tissues; left atria and ventricle
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Heart orientation
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Located left of the body midline posterior to sternum (in mediastinum); lies on the diaphragm; base is the posterior and superior surface of the heart; Apex is anterior and inferior and points to the left hip
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PPericardium
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Triple layered sack that encloses heart; Fibrous pericardium; double layered serous membrane; pericardial cavity; prevents undesired movement, prevents overfilling, reduces friction, pericarditis is the inflammation of pericardium
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Fibrous Pericardium
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attached to diaphragm
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Pericardial cavity
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contains serious fluid
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Heart wall
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Epicardium; Myocardium; endocardium;
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Epicardium
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visceral pericardium; most superficial layer
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Myocardium
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forms bulk of heart; cardiac muscle; located deep to the epicardium; mycardial infarctions occur in this layer
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endocardium
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lines heart chambers; covers valves; deepest layer
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External Anatomy
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Atria (auricle); ventricles; Deoxygenated blood; oxygentated blood
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Deoxygenated blood
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coronary sinus; superior vena caca; inferior vena caca; pulmonary trunk; pulonary arteries
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Oxygentaed blood
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pulmonary veins; aorta
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Fibrous skeleton
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Region of Connective tissue located between the atria and the venticles; separates the atria and ventricles; anchors heart valves; provides electrical insulation between atria and ventricles; provides framework for that attachment of cardiac muscle tissue
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Right Atrium
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Receiving chamber for oxygen poor blood from the systemic circuit; interatrial septum; pectinate muscles; fossa ovalis (foramen ovale during fetal circulation); Conducting nodes (SA and AV nodes); right atrioventricular valve or tricuspid valve
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Right Ventricle
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Pump of the pulmonary circuit; interventricular spetum; trabeculae carnae; papillary muscles (anchor chordae tendinae); chordae tendinae prevent valves from everting during contraction; pulmonary semilunar valve
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Left Atrium
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Posterior surface of the heart; Receives oxygen rich blood from the lungs; Left atrioventricular valve or bicuspid or mitral valve
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Left ventricle
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Most muscular of the chambers 3X thicker than right; forms the apex and inferior surface of the heart; pump of the systemic circuit; aortic semilunar valve
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Valves
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Can be either cuspid or semilunar; coposed of dense connective tissue; two or three cusps; permit passage of blood in one direction; prevent backflow of blood
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Cardiac muscle tissue
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fibers are short, branched, striated, and contain 1-2 nuclei; cells are joined by intercalated discs; gap junctions increase flow of electrolytes; desmosomes prevent cardiac muscle from pulling apart; more mitochondria and ATP than skeletal muscle
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Cardiac Cycle
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Period of time from start of one hearbeat to the initiation of the next; all chambers within the heart experience alternate periods of contraction and relaxation
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systole
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contraction of a heart chamber
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Diastole
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relaxation phase of a heart chamber
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Conducting system
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Series of specialized cardiac muscle cells that caryy impulses throughout the heart musculature; Sinoactrial node- atrioventricular node-AV bundle or Bundle of His-RIght and left bundle branches-purkinje fibers
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SA node
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pacemaker
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AV node
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slows conduction of impuse as it travels from atria to ventricls
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AV bundle or bundle of his
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conducts impules into the interventricular septum
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Right and left bundle branches
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conduct impulse down interventricular septum to the apex of the heart
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Purkinje fibers
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ensures that the heart contracts from apex and up the walls of the ventricles
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Coronary Plexus
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Sympathetic inneration; T1-T5; increases the rate and the force of heart contraction;
parasympathetic innervation; medulla oblongata and vagus nerve; decreases the rate of heart contraction |
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Heart Failure
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Progressive weakening of heart; weakened ventricles, failure of ventricles to empty completely, overfilling of ventricles, congestive heart failure
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Congestive heart failure
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heart enlarges greatly, pumping efficiency progressively declines, cause unknown.
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Arteries
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transport blood away from the hearth; carry oxygenated blood in the systemic circuit; carry deoxygenated blood in the pulmonary circuit and umbilical arteries; when 2 or mor vessels converge they are called anasotmosis
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Capillaries
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location of gas and nutrient excange between vessels and tissues
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veins
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transport blood back to the heart; carry deoxygenated blood in the sytemic circuit; carry oxygentated blood in the pulomary circuit and umbilical vein
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Lumen
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inside space of the vessel
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Tunic intima
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innermost layer; simple squamous endothelium
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Tunica media
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circularly arranged smooth muscle fibers; location of vasodialation and vasoconstriction
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Tunica externa
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outermost layer; collagen and elastic fibers
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Arteries
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Thickest tunica media
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capillaries
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only tunica intima; allows rapid gas exchage
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veins
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thickest tunica externa; smaller tunica media than arteries; valves
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Elastic Arteries
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Largest Arteries; "conducting arteries" between heart and muscular arteries; high elastin content allows arteries to stretch and dampen surges and reduce blood pressure resulting from contractions of heart; aorta and its major branches
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Abdominal Aortic Aneurism
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Localized dilation of a blood vessel, specifically arteries; most often caused by atherosclerosis; may be detected through abdominal palpation, xray or ultrasound, may be treated with artificial vascular prosthesis or stents inserted through the femoral artery
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Muscular Arteries
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"Distributing Arteries" distribute blood to the body organs and tissues; thick tunica media; actively changes diameter of lumen to regulate amount of blood flow to the tissues; most of the named arteries seen in lab (brachial, coronary, inferior, mesenteric arteries, etc
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Arterioles
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smallest arteries; lead to the capillary beds; diameter regulated by local tissue factors and sympathetic nervous system
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Capillaries
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"functional units" of the cardiovascular system; smallest vessels; capillary bed is a network of capillaries that run throughout body tissues; three types of capillaries are continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid
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Continuous capillary
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most common type; muscle, skin, thymus, lungs, and the CNS
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Fenestrated capillary
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Small intestine, endocrine glands, kidneys
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Sinusoid capillary
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bone marrow, spleen, liver
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Venules
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smallest veins,primary location of diapedesis; venules join to form veins
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Veins
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return blood to the heart; acts as blood resevoir; walls of veins are thinner than thos of comparable arteries; low blood pressure in veins; most veins contain valves that prevent backflow of blood; skeletal muscle conractions help pump blood toward the heart
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Hepatic Portal System
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Hepatic portal vein, gastric vein, gastro omental (gastroepiploic) vein, splenic vein, inferior mesenteric vein, superior mesenteric vein
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Varicose veins
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valves have become dysfunctional resulting in blood pooling in the limb veins; result of genetic predisposition, againg, or some form of stress that inhibits venous return such as obesity, pregnancy, or standing for long periods of time.
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Hemorrhoids
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Varicose veins of the anorectal region; caused by increased introabdominal pressure from bowel movements or childbirth
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Blood pressure
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Pulse, blood pressure, hypertension is 140/90
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Atherosclerosis
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Linked to 50% of all deaths in US; progressive disease of the elastic and muscular arteries (aorta and coronary arteries most affected); characterized by presencs of atheroma or fatty plaque; Leads to thickening of the tunica intima; narrowing of arterial lumen
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Atherosclerosis II
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Risk factors: genetics, sex,age, smoking, hypertension
Treatments: angioplasty, stents, coronary bypass surger Best treatment is prevention: maintain healthy diet and watch cholesterol, don't smoke, monitor blood pressure |
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Umbilical Cord
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2 umbilical arteries-medial umbilical ligaments; 1 vein-round ligament of liver or ligamentum teres
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Ductus venosus
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Diverts blood from the liver; ligamentum venosum
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Foramen Ovale
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Diverts blood from the right atrium to the left atrium; fossa ovalis
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Dctus Arteriosus
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Diverts blood from the pulmonary trunk to the aortic arch; ligamentum arteriosum
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Patent Ductus Arteriosis
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Ductus arteriosus fils to constrict and close after birth, if untreated failure of the right ventricle will occur; may be treated with prostaglandin inhibiting medications or surgery
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Lymphatic system
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blood pressure pushes plasma from the blood into the intersittial spaces around the cells called interstitial fluid; most of the fluid is reabsorbed at the venous end, but about 3 liters a day is not; the lymphatic system funcions to return this fluid to the blood stream and is called lymph
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Functions of lymphatic system
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returns leaked plasma to the bloodstream; lymphatic vessels transport dietary lipids; lymphatic organs house lymphocytes; generates an immune response and increases the lymphocyte population
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Lymph and lymph vessels
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Lymph vessels return lymph to the venous blood stream; lymphatic capillaries pick up interstitial fluid which is called lymph when it enters the capillaries; lymphatic vessels; lymphatic trunks; lymphatic dutcs empty lymph back into venous circulation
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Lymph capillaries
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close ended tubes; overlapping endothelial cells form one-way flaps; occur everywhere blood capillaries occur; lacteals pick up interstitial fluid, dietary lipids, and lipid soluble vitamins; GI lymph is called chyle; Lymph capillaries are absent from red bone marrow, CNS, and avascular tissues
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Lymphatic vessels
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receive the lymph from the capillaries; resemble small veins, have 3 tunics and valves; valves prevent backflow in the low pressure system
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Lyphatic trunks
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Drain lymp from major body regions: jugular; subclavian; bronchomediastinal; intestial; lumbar
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Lymphatic Ducts
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Thoracic duct; drains upper left quadrant and entire lower body; Right lymphatic duct: drains upper right quadrant
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Lymphedema
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Accumulation of intersitital fluid usually caused by obstruction; lymphatic filariasis is a type of edema where worms lodge in the lymphatic system. In extreme cases it is called elephantiasis; common in southeast asia and africa. No cure, but can be controlled
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Macrophages
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monocytes that have migrated from the bloodstream to lymphatic system; phagocytosis
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Nurse cells
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special epithelial cells that secrete thymic hormones in lymphatic system
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Dendritic cells
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internalize antigens and present them to other lymphatic cells
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lymphocytes
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most abundant cell type: B lymphocyte and T lymphocyte and NK cells. All three types migrate through the lymphatic system and search for antigens
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Helper T cell
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inititate and oversee immune response; present antigens to other cells; secrete cytokines; targeted by AIDS
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Cytotoxic T cells
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Kill by either secreting substances that break down invading cell membrane or by triggering cell death
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Two subsets of T lymphocytes
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Memory patrol body after attack and suppressor turn off immune response
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B lymphocyte
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respond to one particular antigen and produce immunoglobulins; cannot be activated until a helper t cell presents it with an antigen; once activated creates plasma cells and memory B cells. Plasma cells create antibodes; anitbodies bind to antigens. They immobilize, neutralize, and tag their targets for destruction by t cells
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NK cells
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NK cells can respond to multiple antigens: Each B and T cell can only respond to a single antigen. NK cells can kill a wide variety of infected cells and some cancerous cells
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Lymphatic Nodules
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oval clusters of lymphatic cells that aren't surrounded by a connective tissue capsule; contains proliferating B cless and some macrophages; filter and attack antigens; mucosa associated lymphoid tissue; tonsils (pharyngeal tonsils, palatine tonsils, lingual tonsils)
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Tonsillitis and tonsillectomy
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Tonsils are designed to protect the pharynx from infection so they frequently become inflamed and infected; may be infected by viruses or bacteria; symptoms include fever, chills, sore throat, and difficulty swallowing; tonsillectomies are advised only if the person has had 6-7 infections in 1 year or 2-3 infections per eyar for several years
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Lymphatic organs
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consist of lymphatic cells and extracellular matrix, and are completely surrounded by a connective tissue capsule; thymus, lymph nodes, and spleen
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Thymus
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large in infants and your children and after puberty it begins to shrink; each lob has a cortex and medulla. Cortex contains immature t cells, nurse cells, and some macrophages. Medulla contains epithelial cells and MATURE T cells
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Lymph NODES
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Functions is to filter antigensfrom lymph and initiate immune responses. Cortex contains lymphcytes and dendritic cells. Medulla contains lymphocytes and macrophages; afferent and efferent lymphatic vessels; Clusters in armpit, groin, and neck. Cisterna chyli
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Spleen
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Largest lymphatic organ; upper left quadrant of the abdomen; white pulp contains lymphatic cless and initiates an immune response when antigens are found; red pulp functions as a blood reservoir and is where macrophages phagocytize bacteria and carry out hemolysis
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Lymphoma
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Malignant neoplasm that develops from lymphatic structures; symptoms usually include swollen lymph nodes in the gorin or axillary region; grouped between hodgkins and non hodgkins lymphomas
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Hodgkins lymphoma
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malignancy of the lymph nodes; presence of reed sternberg cell; if caught early prognosis is good
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Non hodgkins lymphoma
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Develop in lymphatic structures; many individuals with AIDS get lymphoma
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