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30 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Differentiate between sensation and perception.
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A sensastion is an impulse sent to the brain from activated receptors and sensory neurons.
Perception is the interpretation of sensations by the brain. |
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Explain the difference between exteroreceptors and interorceptors.
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Exteror is A sensory receptor that detects stimuli outside the body, such as heat, light, pressure, and chemicals.
and interor is a sensory receptor that detects stimuli within the body, such as blood pressure and body position. |
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Name the three stages in the processing of information by nervous systems
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sensory input
integration motor output |
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Explain the role of the sodium-potassium pump in maintaining the resting potential
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The sodium-potassium pump generates and maintains the ionic gradients of Na+ and K+. The pump uses ATP to actively transport Na+ out of the cell and K+ into the cell.
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Describe the characteristics of an action potential. Explain the role of voltage-gated ion channels in this process
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An action potential is a brief, all-or-none depolarization of a neuron's plasma membrane. When a graded depolarization brings the membrane potential to the threshold, many voltage-gated Na+ channels open, triggering an inflow of Na+ that rapidly brings the membrane potential to a positive value. The membrane potetial is restored to is normal resting value by an inactivation of sodium channels and by the opening of many voltage-gated potassium channels, which increases K+ outflow.
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Explain how an action potential is propagated along an axon
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An action potential travels from the axon hillock to the synaptic terminals by regenerating itself along the axon.
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Describe the factors that affect the speed of action potentials along an axon and describe the adaptation that increase the speed of propagation. Describe saltatory conduction
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The speed of conduction of an action potential increases with diameter of the axon and, in many vertebrate axons, with myelination. Action potentials in myelinated axons jump between the nodes of Ranvier, a process called saltatory conduction
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Compare an electrical synapse and a chemical synapse.
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In an electrical synapse, electrical current flows directly from one cell to another via gap junctions. In a chemical synapse, depolarization of the synaptic terminal causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with the terminal membrane and release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft.
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Describe the structures of a chemical synapse and explain how they transmit an action potential from one cell to another.
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When an action potential depolarizes the plasma membrane of the synaptic terminal it opens voltage-gated calcium channels in the membrane, triggering an influx of Ca 2+.
The elevated Ca 2+ concentration in the terminal causes synaptic vesicles to fuse with presynaptic membrane. The vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft. Then it binds to the receptor portion of ligand-gated ion channels in the postsynaptic membrane, opening the channels. |
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Explain how excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs) and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSPs) affect the postsynaptic membrane potential.
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In EPSP depolarization bring the membrane potential toward threshold and IPSP move the membrane potential farther from threshold.
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Define summation and distinguish between temporal and spatial summation
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Summation is the total factors that add to the magnitude.
Temporal summation membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell in a chemical synapse is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced in rapid succession. Spatial summation membrane potential of the postsynaptic cell is determined by the combined effect of EPSPs or IPSPs produced nearly simultaneously by different synapses. |
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Distinguish between the functions of the autonomic nervous system and the somatic nervous system
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Autonomic nervous systems is A subdivision of the motor nervous system of vertebrates that regulates the internal environment; consists of the sympathetic, parasympathetic, and enteric divisions.
The somatic nervous system is the branch of the motor division of the vertebrate peripheral nervous system composed of motor neurons that carry signals to skeletal muscles in response to external stimuli. |
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Explain the importance of sensory adaptations.
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Without sensory adaptation, you would constantly aware of feeling every beat in yor heart and every bit of clothing on your body. Adaptation also enables you to see, hear, and smell changes in environments that vary widely in stimulus intensity.
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List the five types of sensory receptors.
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Mechanoreceptors
Chemoreceptors Electromagnetic receptors Thermoreceptors Pain receptors |
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Explain the role of mechanoreceptors in hearing and balance
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they produce receptor potentials when paticles or moving fluid cause deflection of cell surface structures
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the structure and function of invertebrate statocysts
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A common statocyst consists of a layer of cilliated receptor cells surrounding a chamber that contains one or more statoliths, which are grains of sand or other dense granules.
The settling of statoliths to the low point in the chamber bends cilia on receptor cells in that locations, providing the brain with information about the orientaton of the body with the respect to gravity. |
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Explain how the mammalian ear functions as a hearing organ
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The tympanic membrane (eardrum) transmits sound waves to three smallbones of the middle ear, which transmit the waves through the oval window to the fluid in the coiled cochlea of the inner ear. Pressure waves in the fluid vibrate the basilar membrane, depolarizing hair cells and triggering action potentials that travel via the auditory nerve to the brain. Each region of the basilar membrane vibrates most vigorously at a particular frequency and leads to excitation of a specific auditory area of the cerebral cortex
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Describe the hearing and equilibirum systems of nonmammalian vertebrates.
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The detection of water movement in fishes and aquatic amphibians is accomplished by a lateral line system containing clustered hair cells.
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Describe what happens after and odorant binds to an odorant receptor on the plasma mebrane if the olfactory cilia.
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Triggers signal transduction leading to the production of cyclic AMP. In olfactory cells, cyclic AMP opens channels in the plamsma membrane that are permeable to both Na+ and Ca 2+. The flow of these ions into the receptor cell leads to depolarization of the membrane, generating action potentials.
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Describe the function of the rod cells and cone cells of the certebrate eye
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Rods are more sensitive to light but do not distinguish colors; they enable us to see at night, but only black and white. Cones provide color vision,but, being less sensitive, contribute very little to night vision.
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Describe three functions of a skeleton
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Provides a rigid structure to which muscles can attach..
Skeletons functions in support and protection as well as movement |
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Describe how hydrostatic skeletons function and explain why they are not found in large terrestrial organisms
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A hydrostatic skeleton consists of fluid held under pressure in a closed body compartment. They control their movement by using muscle to change the shape of fluid-filled comparments. They cannot support terrestrial activites in which an animals body is held off the ground, such as walking or running
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Explain how a skeleton combines with an antagonistic muscle arrangement to provide a mechanism for movement.
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They provide movement by contracting and pulling against the skeleton
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Explain how muscle contraction is controlled from an impulse to the role of Ca2+
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A motor neuron initiates contraction by releasing acetlycholine, which deploarizes the muscle fiber. Action potentials travel to the interior of the muscle fiber along the T tubules, stimulating the release of Ca 2+ from the sacroplasmic reticulum.
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Explain how the nervous system produces graded contraction of whole muscles.
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Varying the number of muscle fibers that contract and by varying the rate at which muscle fibers are stimulated.
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Explain the adaptive advantages of slow and Fast muscle fibers.
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Fast-twich fibers fatigue faster since they use glycolytic fibers and slow-twich fibers use are oxidative so they are in a use of a steady energy supply
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Distinguish among skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle.
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Skeletal muscle consists of a bundle of muscle cells (fibers), each of which contains myofibrils composed of thin filaments of actin and thick filaments of myosin.
Cardiac muscle consists of striated cells that are electrically connected by intercalated disks and that can generate action potentials without imput from neurons. In smooth muscles, contractions are slow and may be initiated by the muscles themselves or by stimulation from neurons in the autonomic nervous system |
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List the advantages associated with moving through an (A)aquatic environment (B) terrestrial environment (C) Air
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(A) Most animals are reasonably buoyant in water, overcoming gravity is less of a problem for swimming animals than for species that move on land or through air.
(B) Air poses little resistance, at moderate speeds (C) Birds are very light |
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List the disadvantage associated with moving through an (A)aquatic environment (B) terrestrial environment (C) Air
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(A) Water is much denser and more viscous medium than air, and thus friction is a major problem for aquatic animals.
(B) Animals must be able to support theirselves and move against gravity. (C) Gravity |
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Discuss the factors that affect the energy cost of locomotion.
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Animals that are specialized for swimming expend less energy per meter traveled than equivalently sized animals specialized for flying or running. In addition, larger animals are more efficient than smaller animals specialized for the same mode of locomotion
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