Psychology Chapters 1-3

Front 1

psychology

Back 1

scientific study of the behavior of individuals and their mental processes

Front 2

scientific study

Back 2

set of procedures used for gathering, interpreting, and making dependable observations

Front 3

behavior

Back 3

the observable actions of an organism (people) within a given environment

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mental process

Back 4

internal working of the human mind (measured indirectly) Ex: thinking, reasoning, planning

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4 Aims of psychology

Back 5

1. Description

2. Explanation

3. Prediction

4. Control of Behavior

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behavioral data

Back 6

reports of observations about organisms behavior and the conditions under which the behavior occurs

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Socrates

Back 7

knowledge comes from divine insight

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Aristotle

Back 8

knowledge comes from observation and reasoning

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Locke

Back 9

knowledge comes from experience (Empiricism)

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Kant

Back 10

knowledge comes from innate ability (Nativism)

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Fechner

Back 11

wrote the first psychological work, “Elements of Psychophysics”

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Wundt

Back 12

founded the first formal laboratory devoted to experimental psychology (Structuralist)

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Dewey

Back 13

focused on the functions of reflexes, his concern for the practical uses of mental processes led to important advances in education (learning by doing) (Functionalist)

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Mary Calkins

Back 14

established one of the first psychology laboratories in the U.S. and invented important techniques for studying memory

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Margaret Washburn

Back 15

first woman to receive a PhD in psychology

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Helen Wooley

Back 16

accomplished some of the earliest research that examined differences between the sexes

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Freud

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first to notice that human nature is not always rational and actions may be driven by motives that are not in conscious awareness

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Watson

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argued that psychological research should use observable behavior as the research method for all species (Behaviorist)

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Rogers

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emphasized that individuals have a natural tendency toward psychological growth and health, a process that is aided by the positivity of those who around them (Humanist)

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Maslow

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coined the term “self-actualization” to refer to each individual’s drive toward the fullest development of his/her potential (Humanist)

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Types of Psychology

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1. Structuralism

2. Gestaltism

3. Functionalism

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Titchener

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founder of Structuralism

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Wertheimer

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founder of Gestaltism

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William James

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founder of Functionalism

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Structuralism

Back 25

the study of the basic structural components of mind and behavior, the “what” of mental content, understanding experience by studying the components of that experience

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Gestaltism

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the entirety of mental content (experiencing things as a whole)

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Functionalism

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the “why” of mental content, understanding experience by considering the purpose of the experience

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introspection

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examination by individuals of their own thoughts and feelings about specific sensory experiences

Front 29

Psychological Perspectives Determine

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1. What we study
2. Where we look for information
3. How we look for that information

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Psychological perspectives

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1. Biological

2. Behavioral

3. Humanistic

4. Cognitive

5. Evolutionary

6. Socio-culture

7. Psychodynamic

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Biological perspective

Back 31

all behavior can be explained by underlying physical structures and biological processes

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Behavioral perspective

Back 32

behavior can be explained by environmental conditions and the consequences of behavior

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Humanistic perspective

Back 33

behavior can be explained by people’s attempts to use their own abilities to satisfy natural needs

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Cognitive perspective

Back 34

behavior can be explained by the way in which people think

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Evolutionary perspective

Back 35

behavior can be explained by natural selection

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Socio-culture perspective

Back 36

behavior can be affected by cultural influences

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Psychodynamic perspective

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behavior is driven, or motivated, by powerful inner forces; focuses on instincts and the attempt to solve conflicts between personal needs and society’s demands

Front 38

Ways Characteristics Are Inherited

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1. Heredity

2. Natural Selection

3. Evolution

Front 39

Cells

Back 39

the human body is made up of trillions of cells (the functional basic units of life)

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Nuclei

Back 40

all cells (except red blood cells) have a nucleus which contains genetic material

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Chromosomes

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long strands of genetic material, somatic cells have 46 (23 pairs), gametes have 23

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Genes

Back 42

small segments of chromosomes containing instructions for the production of proteins; these proteins regulate an organism’s appearance and behavior

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DNA

Back 43

the material of chromosomes, the sugar-phosphate backbones holding nitrogen bases, arranged in a double helix

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Genotype

Back 44

the genetic structure that an organism inherits from its parents

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Phenotype

Back 45

the physical and behavioral characteristics of an organism

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Polygenic Trait

Back 46

characteristic that is influenced by more than one gene

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Genome

Back 47

the typical sequence of genes contained in the chromosomes of a species

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Human behavior genetics

Back 48

a research field that combines genetics and psychology to explore the link between inheritance and behavior

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Sociobiology

Back 49

provides evolutionary explanations for the social behavior and social systems of humans and other animal species

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Evolutionary psychology

Back 50

extends the evolutionary explanations of sociobiology to include other aspects of human experience

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Neuroscience

Back 51

the scientific study of the brain and of the links between brain activity and behavior

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Phineas T. Gage

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Railroad accident: Brain damage changed his behavior and character, linking brain and behavior

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Broca

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Identified a brain area that involved the production of speech

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Wernicke

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Identified a brain area involved in the comprehension of speech

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Looking at the brain's structure

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MRI, CAT scan

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Looking at where events happen in the brain

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rTMS, PET, fMRI

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Looking at when events happen in the brain

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EEG

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nervous system

Back 58

the body’s fast electrochemical communication network consisting of highly specialized nerve cells (neurons)

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neurons

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cells in the nervous system specialized to receive, process, and/or transmit information to other cells

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dendrites

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receives signals from sense receptors or other neurons

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soma

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combines information received from the dendrites

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axon

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transmits action potential

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terminal button

Back 63

releases neurotransmitters

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myelin sheath

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the insulating material that surrounds axons and increases the speed of neural transmissions

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action potential

Back 65

the nerve impulse activated in a neuron that travels down the axon and causes neurotransmitters to be released into a synapse

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excitatory input

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information entering a neuron that signals it to fire

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inhibitory input

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information entering a neuron that signals it to not fire

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synapse

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joins one neuron to another so the two neurons do not touch

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synaptic transmission

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the relaying information from one neuron to another across the synaptic gap

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neurotransmitters

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chemical messenger released from a neuron that crosses the synapse from one neuron to another, stimulating the postsynaptic neuron (the neuron on the other side)

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GABA

Back 71

most common inhibitory neurotransmitter

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Glutamate

Back 72

most common excitatory; processes emotion, learning, and memory

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neuromodulator

Back 73

any substance that modifies the activities of the postsynaptic neuron

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resting potential

Back 74

restriction of vibration of cellular fluid within a neuron which provides the capability to produce an action potential

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refractory period

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the period of rest where a new action potential can’t be activated in a segment of an axon (absolute or relative)

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Peripheral nervous system (PNS)

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system connecting the body’s sensory receptors to the spinal cord and brain, and the spinal cord and brain to the muscles and glands

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Central nervous system (CNS)

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neurons in the brain and spinal cord which processes incoming signals and sends out commands to the body

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sensory neurons

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carries messages from sense receptors inwards, toward the central nervous system

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motor neurons

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carries messages outwards, away from the central nervous system towards the muscles and glands

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interneuron

Back 80

brain neuron that relays messages from sensory neurons to other interneurons or to motor neurons

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mirror neuron

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neuron that responds when an individual observes another individual performing a motor action

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Glia

Back 82

cells that hold neuron together and facilitate neural transmission, remove damaged and dead neurons, and prevent poisonous substances in the blood from reaching the brain; make up the myelin sheath

Front 83

3 Areas of the Brain

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1. Brain Stem - the primitive brain

(shared by all primitive animals)

2. Limbic System - emotion, motivation, memory (shared by mammals)

3. Cerebrum - rational brain

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Parts of the Brain Stem

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1. Thalamus - send info to the right side of brain

2. Pons - info crosses to other side of brain

3. Medulla - basic life support

4. Reticular formation - aware of surroundings

5. Cerebellum - coordination of movement

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Parts of the Limbic System

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1. Amygdala - emotional control
2. Hypothalamus - motivated behavior (hunger/thirst)
3. Hippocampus - memory formation

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Parts of the Cerebrum

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1. Frontal Lobe - executive function (planning, decision making)

2. Parietal Lobe - somatosenses (processes body senses, such as touch, temperature, and pain)

3. Occipital Lobe - visual cortex

4. Temporal Lobes - auditory cortex

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cerebral cortex

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outer part of the cerebrum

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Two Halves of the Brain

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1. Left Hemisphere - logic, language
2. Right Hemisphere - intuition, creativity

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corpus colossum

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joins the two hemispheres of the brain

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longitudinal fissue

Back 90

divides the brain in half topwise

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Types of Glands

Back 91

1. Pituitary
2. Thyroid
3. Adrenal
4. Pancreas

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Research Cycle/Process

Back 92

1. Decide on an idea

2. Formulate a hypothesis

3. Define your variables

4. Select a research design

5. Recruit personnel (researchers and participants)

6. Collect data

7. Analyze data

8. Report findings

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theory

Back 93

an organized set of concepts that explains a phenomenon

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hypothesis

Back 94

testable explanations for an observed phenomenon (specific experimental hypothesis usually take the form of predictions)

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determinism

Back 95

the assumption that all physical, behavioral, and mental events are determined by factors that can be known

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Independent variable

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experimental groupings

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Dependent variable

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the thing being measured

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Extraneous variables

Back 98

other factors that vary within the study

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Confounding variables

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extraneous variables that could account for the experimental results (factors that mess up the study)

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Variable

Back 100

any factor that varies in amount or kind

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Experimental method

Back 101

involves the manipulation of independent variables to determine their effects on the dependent variables

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Descriptive research

Back 102

records data for descriptive purposes only

Types

1. Observation

2. Survey

3. Case studies - intense observation of an individual or a small group of individuals

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Correlative research

Back 103

researcher systematically records data to see if there is a relationship between variables (correlation does not always indicate causation)

Types

1. Positive - as the number of one thing increases, so does the number of another thing

2. Negative - as the number of one thing increases, the number of another thing decreases

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Experimental research

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researcher attempts to show that a change in one variable causes a change in another variable, studies compare the performance of two or more groups given different experimental treatments

Types

1. Within subjects - the same people in each experimental group

2. Between subjects - different people in each group

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reactivity

Back 105

phenomenon that occurs when individuals alter their performance or behavior due to the awareness that they are being observed

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expectancy effect

Back 106

result that occurs when a researcher or observer subtly communicates to participants the kind of behavior he or she expects to find, thereby creating that expected reaction

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observer bias

Back 107

the distortion of evidence because of the personal motives and expectations of the viewer/researcher

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stardardization

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a set of uniform procedures for treating each participant in a test or experiment

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double blindness

Back 109

when neither the researchers of the participants know the experimental groupings

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Measuring data

Back 110

1. Self-report

2. Physiological

3. Behavioral

Front 111

Validity

Back 111

the extent to which a test measures what it was intended to measure

Front 112

Reliability

Back 112

the degree to which a test produces similar results each time

Front 113

Operational definitions

Back 113

standardize meanings in a study, a definition of a variable or condition in terms of the specific procedure used to determine its presence

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Descriptive statistics

Back 114

describes the data

Front 115

Inferential statistics

Back 115

to test their hypothesis

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informed consent

Back 116

participants must be notified about experimental procedures (including potential risks and benefits) before they sign up

Front 117

intentional deception

Back 117

withholding information about an experiment to avoid biasing the response of participants, telling people what they will do but not why they will be doing it

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risk/gain assessment

Back 118

weighing the potential physical or emotional harm that an experiment might cause against the benefits that it might produce

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debriefing

Back 119

providing information at the end of study to ensure that participants are not confused upset, or embarrassed