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148 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is social psychology? |
the scientific study of how people think about, influence and relate to one another; What situations trigger people to do things |
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What are the fundamental principles in social psych? |
Social thinking, influences and relations |
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What is Social Neuroscience? |
An integration of biological and social perspectives that explores the neural and psychological bases of social and emotional behaviors. The mind and body is one big system |
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What is culture? |
The enduring behaviors, ideas, attitudes, traditions, products and institutions shared by a large group of people ad transmitted from one generation to the next. These assumptions may go unchallenged given certain cultural views |
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What is social representation? |
Socially shared beliefs; Widely held ideas and values, including our assumptions and cultural ideologies. Our social representations help us make sense of our world |
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What kinds of theories/supported judgments do our values play a role in? |
- what is the good life? - Professional advice - Forming concepts - Labeling |
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What is naturalistic fallacy? |
the error of defining what is good in terms of what is observable for example what's typical is normal, so what's normal is good (is vs. ought to be) |
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What are the 2 contradictory criticisms of social psychology? |
1) It's trivial (documents the obvious) 2) Dangerous (findings could be used for manipulations) |
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What is the hindsight bias? |
The tendency to exaggerate after learning an outcome, one's ability to have forseen; common sense is usually right after the fact |
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What is a theory? what is the difference between this and a fact? |
Integrated set of principles that explain and predict observed effects. Facts, instead, are agreed-upon statements that we observe |
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What is a hypothesis? |
A testable proposition that describes a relationship that may exist between events; able to test the theory |
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What is field research? |
Research done in natural, real life settings outside the lab |
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What is correlational research? What is experimental research? |
C: Study of the naturally occurring relationships among variables; usually occur in real-life settings and does not specify cause and effect (called longitudinal research when it is extended over time) E: Studies that seek clues to cause-effect relationships by manipulating 1 or more factors (IV) while controlling others (hold them constant) |
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What is a random sample? |
Survey procedure in which every person in the population being studied has an equal chance of inclusion. they are represented in the survey as they are in the populatiion |
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What are some biasing influences? |
- Unrepresentative sample - Order of the questions - Response bias/social desirability |
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What are independent variables? What are dependent variables? |
IV: The experimental factor that a researcher manipulates DV: The variable being measured, so called because it may depend on manipulations of the IV |
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What is random assignment? |
The process assigning participants to the conditions of the experiment such that all persons have the same chance of being in a given condition |
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What is Mundane realism? |
Degree to which an experiment is superficially similar to everyday situations (lab behavior not the same as every day behavior) |
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What is experimental realism? |
Degree to which a experiment absorbs and involves its participants |
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What are demand characteristics? |
Cues in an experiment that tell the participant what behavior is expected ("demand certain behavior") |
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What is informed consent? |
ethical principle requiring that research participants be told enough to enable the,, to choose whether they wish to participate |
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What is an advantage/disadvantage of correlational experiments? |
ADV: Often uses real would settings DIS: Causation often ambiguous |
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What is an advantage/disadvantage of experimental experiments? |
ADV: Can explore cause/effect by controlling variables and random assignment DIS: Some important variables can't be studied with experiments |
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What is social influence? What are the 3 groups of social influence? |
How do we influence each other? Persuasion, groups and conformity |
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Describe social psych vs. Sociology andd vs. personality psycholoygy |
- S: Sociology asks more macro level questions and large scale society patterns; SP is more focused on individual person - P: Personality focuses on what makes others different from others; SP is more situation-focused |
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What are 3 central themes in social psych? |
- Situationism (power of the situation) - Subjectivism (construals) - Motivation (to belong, understand) |
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What is Naive realism? |
Tendency to believe you see things as they really are; rational others with the same info will agree with me |
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What are the 5 key points behind motivation? |
- Belong - Understand - Control - Enhance - Trust |
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What is hindsight bias? |
Tendency to be overconfident about whether we could have predicted an outcome after we know it occurred ("I knew it all along") |
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What is the confirmation bias? |
Tendency when evaluating a hypothesis to focus on examples in which it is true. We want it to be true but this can be problematic due to insufficient information |
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what is a convenience sample? What is a representative sample? |
C: People who are readily available and conveniently available R: People resemble the population relevant to research
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Describe the cooperate vs. compete study |
- Recruit uni participants based on what their Don said about them (either competitive or cooperative person) - Either played the community game or wall street game; the name of the game matters - Competitive people ended up being more cooperative in community game and both groups of people were even in cooperation in the wall st game - What matters is the situation you are in, not the person you are; the situation affected their behavior more |
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Describe the Stanford Prison Experiment |
- Would putting people in certain roles being out certain behaviors? - Assign half of 24 men to inmate and half to guard - Treated like real prisoners and guards - Mental health was on the line for prisoners; too much distress - Experiment had to end early - Problem with authority here; listening to authority was key in this experiment |
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What is the Reactive Devaluation experiment? |
- Peace proposals created by Israeli negotiators then given to Israeli citizens to judge - Some labelled as "israeli" some as "Palestinian" - When proposal was labelled Palestinian it was rated much lower - Point was how can you like anyone's ideas if you don't even like your own groups? - Naive realism - believed it was bad due to label |
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What is Priming? |
Activating particular associations in memory; our thinking and acting are primed by events which we are unaware. For example, people exposed to a cleaner identified cleaning related words easier |
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What is important if social info is subject to multiple interpretations? |
Preconceptions |
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What is the spontaneous trait reference? |
Call someone a jerk and people may think you are one |
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what is the belief Perseverance? |
Persistence of your initial conceptions, as when the basis for your belief is discredited but an explanation why the belief might be true survives (For example, a trait may make a firefighter seem good or bad) |
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What affects how we mentally construct events? |
Beliefs and expectations |
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When do we reconstruct memories? What problem does this pose? |
At the time of withdrawal; False memories can be reconstructed |
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What is the Misinformation effect? |
Incoporating "misinformation" into one's memory of the event; after witnessing an event and then receiving misleading info about it. Studies show that people can add misinformation to their memoreis |
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What is rosy retrospection? |
Recalling mildly pleasant events more favorably than when you experienced it |
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When do we revise our recollections of other people? |
When our relationships with them change; The cycle tends to repeat itself (current view - bad memory - confirm negative attitude) |
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What part of our brain controls much of our behavior? |
Unconscious |
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What is controlled thinking? |
"Explicit" thinking that is deliberate, reflective and conscious (partial) |
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What is automatic processing? |
"Implicit" thinking that is effortless, habitual, and without awareness; roughly corresponds to intuition. emotional response is an example, as it tends to be effortless and the cortex cannot intervene |
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What is the overconfidence phenomenon? |
The tendency to be more confident than correct- to overestimate the accuracy of one's belief |
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True or false: There is a correlation between self confidence and accuracy |
True |
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When predicting future behavior, what do people tend to give too much weight to? |
Current intentions for behavior |
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What is the confirmation bias? |
A tendency to search for the info that confirms one's perceptions. You would not seek out info that would disprove what you believe |
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What are 3 ways you can reduce the overconfidence bias? |
1) Prompt feedback 2) Break tasks into subcomponents and estimate the time 3) Think of why you are wrong |
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What is a heuristic? |
A thinking strategy that enables quick efficient judgments. For example, "That's dangerous" |
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What is the representativeness heuristic? |
The tendency to presume, sometimes despite contrary odds, that someone/something belongs to a particular group if resembling (representing) a typical member; tendency to classify something according how similar it seems to a typical case. For example, when you think of a bird, a penguin or ostrich don't come to mind first but they are still birds |
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What is the availability heuristc? |
A cognitive rule that judges the likelihood of things in terms of their availability in memory. If instances of something come readily to mind, we presume it to be commonplace. For example, people think Iraq has more people than Tanzania because they hear about it more |
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What is counterfactual thinking? |
Imagining alternative scenarios and outcomes that might have happened but didn't. The more significance the event has, the more intense the counterfactual thinking. |
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What is the illusory correlation? |
Perception of a relationship where none exists , or perception of a stronger relationship than actually exists |
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What is the illusion of control? |
Perception of uncontrollable events as subject to one's control or as more controllable than they are (for example, gambling - you bet more money playing a seemingly nervous person) |
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What is regression towards the average? |
Statistical tendency for extreme scores/behavior to return towards the person's average; you might have a super high first mark but usually lower 2nd |
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True or false: Mood does not infuse out judgement |
false; happy people have better outlooks and bad moods can prime recollection of negative events |
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What is misattribution? |
Mistakenly attributing a behavior to the wrong cause; did the boy hit the other boy because he is hostile? Or was he being bullied? |
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What is Attribution Theory? |
Theory of how people explain the behavior of others; for example, by attributing it to either internal dispositions or to external situations |
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What is Dispositional Attributions? |
Attributing behavior to the person's disposition/traits |
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What is situational Attribuion? |
Attributing behavior to the environment |
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What is the Spontaneous trait inference? |
An effortless, automatic inference of a trait after exposure to someone's behavior |
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What is the fundamental Attribution Error? |
The tendency for observers to underestimate situational influences and over estimate dispositional influences on other's behavior |
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Why do we make the fundamental attribution error? |
- Actor-Observer Distance: Observe others from a different perspective than ourselves - Camera Perspective Bias: Influence people's guilt judgments - Perspectives changes with time: As time passes, credit more to the situation |
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True or false: Culture has an influence on the FAE |
True |
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What is the self-fulfilling prophecy? |
A belief that leads to own fulfillment; false perceptions may create the reality. People's expectations about a person eventually lead that person to behave in ways that confirm those expectations |
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What is behavioral confirmation? |
A type of self-fulfilling prophecy lead them to act in ways that cause others to confirm the expectation. Fore example, "Hot" women supposedly spoke warmer on the phone which fulfilled the stereotype that beautiful people are desirable |
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What could reduce vulnerability to certain types of error? |
Education |
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What was the Subliminal Stimuli theory? |
Asked women to read an explicit passage, then flash a photo of the pope, a face, or nothing. women who saw the pope reported lower self-esteem |
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What was the representative heuristic experiment involving frank? |
- 30 engineers and 70 lawyers read a passage about Frank - Most thought he was a lawyer given his description - Even when they had 70 engineers read the passage, all still thought he was a lawyer based on the description - Frank was more representative of lawyers |
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Describe the experiment of teacher's expectations vs. student performance |
- teachers were told certain kids were on the verge of an intellectual growth spurt and were ahead on IQ scores - Teachers therefore created different expectations for them - 8 months later, these students outperformed peers on IQ tests - this is an example of self-fulfilling prophecy |
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What is an observational research design? |
Observing people in their natural environment |
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Describe the observational research experiment involving beer consumption |
- Asked people if they drank beer during the week - 15% said they did - Checking the recycling bins told a different story; they noticed way more beer cans in the recycling than had been admitted to - Underreporting |
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Describe the Hypothetical Caffeine Experiment |
- To test the effect of caffeine on persistence, researchers assign participants to a group that drinks a decaf beverage or a group that drinks a same tasting caffeine beverage - Measure how long it takes them to do a puzzle |
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What was the top hat question from class that asked which correlation that was most likely a causal relation? |
Having a dog leads to less depression likelihood |
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What is ideal scientific vs. intuitive thinking? |
IS: Expends effort and caution to reach correct conclusions, seeks out evidence that could falsify hypothesis IT: Rushes to judgment by relying on heuristics, does not seek out/ignores falsifying information. biased to see patterns matching own expectations |
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What is the inferential heruristic? |
Easy, intuitive judgments involve computations our minds perform naturally and automatically without deliberation (ex, liking/disliking, similarity). Other judgments are not automated and demand more extensive attention and resource-dependent deliberation |
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What is the attribute substitution? |
When judgments ta information-processing capacities, people often substitute an answer to a related judgment that is easier and more intuitive |
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What is the Feeling heuristic? |
Our reliance on the feelings that we experience as we think about a topic to judge importance, risk or satisfaction |
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Discuss the Experiment regarding life satisfaction by current weather |
- Asked "how's the weather where you are" over the phone to half of the people randomly selected - Proceeded to answer a few questions afterwards - When there was no preceding question, the life satisfaction was 2 points higher on a sunny than rainy day - When they were asked about the weather, they were almost even - The rainy day affect disappears once you ask them about the weather; you caught them trying to commit the feeling heuristic when you ask them about the weather |
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Describe the outcome of the "Political outcomes by Sporting Events" experiment |
- Should sporting records reflect your politician? - Using the feeling heuristic, you could just see how happy you are today and vote for the current people in office - People vote on how happy they were and not how the candidate was actually doing (feeling heuristic) |
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What is a potential problem with the representativeness heuristic? |
- Involves base rate neglect - Not all category/classification members are typical - Leads to conjunction fallacy |
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What is a schema? |
An organized set of knowledge about a stimulus (attributes of concept/stimulus). It's functions are to shape attention and memory, help figure out what something means and guide interpretations of ambiguous information |
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discuss the experiment regarding schemas and the guest lecturer |
- guest lecture in economic gaps - Everyone was given a brief bio of the lecturer, and half the class was told he was a very warm person, half told cold - Everyone listened then was asked their opinion - "Warm" was rated more considerate, sociable, humorous - Fits schema of what "warm" person is |
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What is the Shaping Attention/Memory experiment? |
- People saw a video of a woman dining with her husband - People were either told she was a librarian or a waitress - People were asked to recall info about the video immediately after video, 4 days later and 7 days later - At each point, the rate of correct recall or info that matched the schema was always higher than the inconsistent info |
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What is the Accelerating processing schemas experiment? |
- 3 groups of participants, based on self-report schema - independent/individualist/leader - dependent/conformist/follower - Aschematic - Saw a list of independent and dependent traits - People categorized shema-consistent "me" words faster |
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What was the police officer's dilemma experiment? |
- Each encounter includes series of background scenes, white or black male target and they are either holding a gun or can - Decide whether or not to shoot - Results matched schema (stereotype) of black males as violent |
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What is hypothesis confirming bias? |
Tendency to selectively seek info that confirms our pre-existing beliefs |
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What was the motivated perception and Beer Tasting experiment? |
- Perceiving what we expect or want to perceive - Does having vinegar in your beer make the beer more or less tasty - 3 conditions: control, info then beer, beer then info - When you find out before, then you are less likely to think it tastes good as opposed to after - Our perceptions impact our beliefs |
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What is belief perserverance? |
Maintaining beliefs after they have been discredited
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Describe the belief perserverance and suicide note experiment? |
- Try to have participants gage real vs fake suicide notes - Later told they had either good or bad feedback - Shortly after, they were told they made the data up - Despite being told it was bogus data, they were asked to rate how good they were at the task and people who had been told they were bad had rated themselves lower than the other good group |
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What is social cognition? |
How we select, interpret and remember info about ourselves and our social world |
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What was the Gestalt Person Perception Model? |
- Factors shaping impression formation;; order in which a word occurs, context of the other words, centrality of certain words |
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What is a self-concept? |
A person's answers to the question "Who am I?" |
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What is the right hemisphere's role in the self? |
Medial prefrontal cortex helps stitch together your sense of self |
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What are self-schemas? |
Beliefs about self that organize and guide the processing of elf-relevant information. For example, if athletics is central to your self-concept, you tend to notice others' bodies and skills or sports related experiences |
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What are possible selves? |
Images of what we dream of or dread becoming in the future (rich, thin, unemployed) |
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What is social identity? |
The "we" aspect of our self-concept. The par of our answer to "Who am I" that comes from group memberships (Catholic, Australian). It also implies who you are not. We tend to think less about our social identity when we are the majority of people |
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What is social comparison? |
Evaluating your abilities/opinions by comparing yourself to others. Most of life revolves around this. When we experience an increase in affluence, status, or achievement, we compare "upwards" and raise the standards by which we evaluate our attainments |
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What is the looking glass self? |
- Developed by Cooley in 1902 - How we think others perceive us as a mirror for perceiving ourselves - Overestimate appraisal and inflate our self-image |
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True or false: Self esteem corresponds more closely to superficial traits than to communal qualities |
True |
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What is individualism? |
The concept of giving priority to one's own goals over group goals and defining one's identity in terms of personal attributes rather than group identifications (Western thought). Identity is self-contained |
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What is Collectivism? |
Giving priority to the goals of one's groups (often extended family/work group) and defining one's identity accordingly (Asia, Africa) |
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What is the independent self? |
Construing one's identity in relation to others |
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True or false: One's definition as collectivist or individualist is concrete |
False; it oversimplifies to pigeon hole someone in that way |
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Describe the monkey, panda, banana experiment |
- Given those 3 words and asked which ones fit - Americans tended to group them based on animals (Monkey, panda) - Asians tended to look at the relationship (Monkey and banana) |
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What is self-esteem like in individualist cultures? In collectivist cultures? |
I: More personal; threatening personal identity is worse than collective C: "what others think of me and my group" |
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What is independent vs. interdependent? |
Individualist vs. collectivist |
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Why can people's friends usually predict things better (such as longevity of relationships) than the person themselves? |
Person is wearing "rose-colored glasses"; absorbed in situation |
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What is planning fallacy? |
The tendency to underestimate how long it would take to complete a task. Friends, rather than the person themselves, are usually better at predicting this |
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Why do people tend to mis-predict how they would feel later in situations?
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- Aren't actually upset as they thought they were over event - Overestimate how much their well-being would be affected |
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What is impact bias? |
Overestimating the enduring impact of emotion-causing events; this may lead to ill-advised investments. By focusing on a negative event, we discount the importance of everything else that contributes to happiness |
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What is immune neglect? |
The human tendency to underestimate the speed//strength of the psych immune system, which enables emotional recovery and resilience after bad things happen. Major evens can be less enduringly stressful than minor irritations, which don't activate the defenses |
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True or false: The mental processes controlling social behavior differ from processes which we explain our behavior |
true |
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What are dual attitudes? |
Differing implicit (automatic) and explicit (consciously controlled) attitudes towards the same object. Verbalized explicit attitudes may change with education and persuasion; implicit attitudes change slowly, with practice that forms new habits |
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What are some practical implications for limits of self-knowledge? |
1) Psychological inquiry - error in self-understanding limit scientific usefulness of subjective, personal reports 2) For everyday lives - personal testimonies may be wrong |
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What is self0esteem? |
A person's overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth; could be the sum of all schemas and possible selves, or could also be people who value themselves in a general way are more likely to value abilities, etc. |
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What are some of the "Dark Sides" of self-esteem? |
- Low SE increases risk for depression, rug use and delinquency - Higher than avg SE can also be bad (gang leaders, etc.) - If your SE is threatened, put others down (violence) - Wounded pride motivates retaliation - Narcissism is a factor |
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True or false: A secure self-esteem is conductive t long term well-being because it is rooted more in internal sources |
true |
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What is learned helplessness? |
The hopelessness and resignation learned when a human/animal perceives no control over bad events |
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What do systems of governing/managing people that promote self-efficacy promote? |
Health and happiness; For example, gaining sense of control over school gain a greater sense of control over our lives |
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What is self-serving bias? |
The tendency to perceive yourself favorably |
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What are self-serving attributions? |
A form of self-serving bias; the tendency to attribute positive outcomes to yourself and negative outcomes to other factors. We are even biased against seeing our own bias - "I avoid this but others don't". we also tend to do things such as rate ourselves higher than avg in desirable traits |
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Are humans more disposed to optimism or pessimism? |
Optimist; sometimes, illusory optimism can increase our vulnerability |
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What is the false consensus effect? |
The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors; for example, "I lie, but doesn't everyone?" |
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What is the false uniqueness effect? |
Tendency to underestimate the commonality of one's abilities and one's desirable/successful behaviors; your talents and morals are "unusual", virtues are exceptional bu your failures are common or normal |
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What is the temporal comparison? |
A comparison between how the self was viewed in the past and how the self is expected to be viewed in the future. Disparages the past self and compliments recent passed selves. Positive past selves are usually seen as closer in time and negative past selves are more distant. |
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What is the Terror Management theory? |
- Positive self-esteem buffers anxiety - Learn that a secure feeling is good - Reminding people of their own mortality motivates them to affirm their self-worth |
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What is group-serving bias? |
Explaining away out--group members' positive behaviors; also attributing negative behaviors to their dispositions (while excusing such behavior by one's own group) |
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What is self-handicapping? |
Protecting one's self-image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure. If we fail while under a handicap, we can cling to a sense of competence |
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What is self presentation? |
The act of expressing yourself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to your ideals. This is able to improve your mood. Additionally, social media can be seen as a venue for self-presentation |
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What is self-monitoring? |
Being attuned to the way you present yourself in social situations and adjusting your performance to create that desired impression. you tend to espouse attitudes you don't really hold. This is seen greatest in countries that value self-restraint (China, Japan) |
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What was the "Culture and Self-Concept Stability" experiment? |
- Asian and white participants - Asked to consider the self across situations and relationships - Rated self on 10 traits - Asian students were more likely to show a dynamically changing self in different contexts |
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What is introspection? |
Process whereby we look inward and examine our own thoughts, feelings and motives. we assume we have direct access to our mental states while experiencing them, but we don't |
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what are some limits of introspection? |
- People don't rely on it as often as you would think - Reasoning can be hidden from our conscious awareness - Even in settings where researchers can control the participant's behavior, they don't realize that their behavior was influenced by someone outside |
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What is the "reporting invalid influences" experiment? |
- Ps watched a film about Jewish poverty while a chainsaw was either going in the room next to them or not - Did the distraction decrease people's perception of the film? - Results were that distraction did not decrease p's actual film rating, but 55% said the noise lowered their rating |
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What is basking in reflected glory (BIRGing)? |
- Close to someone else - Activity is not central to your own self-esteem - Others perform well, you are happy for them - Happens when they achieve something that is not relevant to you |
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What is Suffering by comparison? |
- Close to other person - Activity is central to our self-esteem - Other's performance is better than ours - Feel threatened by sucess |
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Success of failure depends on ... |
Person's self control or strength |
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Describe the Nursing Home experiment |
- Nursing home participants given choices and responsibilities - The control condition received help and care - P's with focus on choice were happer, more involved and lower mortality rates 18 months later |
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What is the difference between disjoint models and conjoint models? |
D: Self-focused and independent from others; "Freely chosen" sources of action contingent on one's own preferences C: Relationship-focused and interdependent with others; Responsive to obligations and expectations of others (preferences, goals) |
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What is self-deception? |
Selective distortion of info to maintain a positive self-view. It occurs when we draw self-serving conclusions that differ from conclusions an objective party would draw given the same info |
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Describe the "Motivated Reasoning: Own Memory" study |
- Study 1 manipulated P's desired self-views saying that research shows extraversion predicts success or intraversion - Study 2 asked P's to list memories related to shy vs. outgoing personality dimension - Memories were coded for illustrating inroverted or extraverted behaviors - true intra or extraverts shift self-ratings to fit the manipulation but not totally |
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what is the Temporal self-appraisal theory? |
- We are motivated to think positively of ourselves - Evaluate past selves to make the current self look good - Want to see subjectively recent past self favorably especially on important attributes; opposite for distant past |
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What is the "From Chump to champ" |
- Study 1: uWaterloo participants describe themselves now and at age 16. Later classify each statement as positive, neutral or negative - Study 2: P's rated either themselves or acquaintance now or about 3.5 months ago. Participant's ratings improved over time for self but not other |
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What is the "Consequences of Introspection" experiment? |
- Participants in dating relationships - Half the people wrote a random topic, half wrote down why their relationship was going the way it was - Reporting the "reasons" it was going a certain way made participants change their attitude about the relationship |
