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154 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
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Transverse Plane |
Coronal Plane |
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Axial Plane |
Horizontal Plane |
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If you cut circular slices of the spine, they are cut from what plane? |
Transverse/Coronal |
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Order of spinal segments: |
Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral |
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Order of "maters"/meninges from outer to inner |
Dura Mater, Arachnoid Membrane, and Pia Mater |
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Are the "ventral roots" motor or sensory?
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Motor.
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Command center is always in front.
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Is the "gray matter" of the brain and spinal cord inside or outside? |
Outer layer of brain, inner layer of spinal cord |
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How many nerves are there? |
12 |
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Are all of the nerves motor, sensory, or a mix? |
Some are purely motor, some are purely sensory, and some are a mix. |
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The forebrain consists of? |
Telencephalon and Diencephalon |
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The Telencephalon consists of? |
Cortex, Basal Ganglia, and Limbic System |
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The Diencephalon consists of? |
Thalmus and Hypothalamus |
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The Midbrain is called? |
Mesencephalon |
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The Hindbrain consists of? |
Cerebellum, Pons, and Medulla |
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The PNS consists of?
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Somatic (Skeletal) Nerves & Autonomic Ganglia and Nerves
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What does the Autonomic Ganglia and Nerves consist |
Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions |
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What are some differences between our brains and other animals'?
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Increase in the # & variety of Cortical Fields, our Cerebral Cortex is larger.
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How many layers of cortex do we have? |
Six |
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Difference between Afferent and Efferent
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Carry from one structure to another structure, Projections from a Structure
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Difference between Intrinsic and Extrinsic |
Within and Projecting Out |
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What ventricles of the brain do we have?
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Lateral, Third, and Fourth
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Our brain is supplied with what arteries? |
Anterior, Middle, and Posterior Cerebral |
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What are derived parts versus general parts of a brain?
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Specialized versus homologous
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The medulla and brainstem are arbitrarily considered parts of the brain. What other thing could you say about them? |
That they're rostral extensions of the spinal cord. |
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Are the dorsal roots motor or sensory? |
Sensory |
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What is Cortical Magnification?
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An enlargement of structures associated with behavioral specialization at all levels of the nervous system. An increase in the amount of cortex devoted to behaviorally relevant sensory surfaces within a cortical area.
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What does the midbrain include? |
Inferior and Superior Colliculi (Tectum), Cranial Nerve Nuceli (Tegmentum), and Reticular Formation |
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What two structures compose the brainstem?
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Pons and Medulla
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P.M.
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Functions of Pons and Medulla?
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Sleep & Arousal - contains nuclei of many cranial nerves for head and neck. Medulla controls a # of life-supporting systems (heart rate, respiration)
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If you had to consider the Reticular Formation to be part of any one brain division, which division would it be in? |
Hindbrain |
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What is the Reticular Formation involved in?
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Posture, Locomotion, Arousal
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PAL
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Role of Cerebellum?
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Balance, Coordination, Rapid Movement. Perhaps additionally Shifting Attention, Cognitive Behaviors, Linguistic Processing, and Verbal Working Memory.
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Motor Activities, Attention & Cognition, Language
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What does the Tectum contain? |
Superior and Inferior Colliculus |
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What are the Superior and Inferior Colliculus involved in, respectively? |
Vision and Audition. SC also involved in registration of maps of visual and auditory space. |
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What does the Tegmentum contain? What is it involved in?
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Nuclei and fiber tracts of Cranial Nerves. Involved in eye movements.
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Think Cranial
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What is the Dorsal Thalamus involved in? |
Relaying sensory inputs to the cortex |
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What is the Ventral Thalamus involved in?
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Receiving input from cortex, especially from eye. Coordination of head/eye movements.
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What is the Hypothalamus involved in?
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Regulation of internal organ systems (Temperature, Sleep, Emotion).
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SET
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What is the Cerebral Cortex involved in? |
Voluntary Motor Control, Perception, Cognition, Memory, Planning, and Generating an Internal Coordinate System or a Sense of Self |
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Function of Hippocampus and Dentate Gyrus |
Formation of long and short-term memories |
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How many layers does the Hippo have? |
Three |
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Does the Hippo change dramatically in mammals? |
No |
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What does the Basal Ganglia consist of? |
Caudate Nucleus, Putamen, and Globus Pallidus |
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What is the Basal Ganglia involved in? |
Motor Control, Coordination, and recently, Cognition |
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What are some "Limbic Structures"? |
Amygdala, Hippocampus, Olfactory Bulbs, Cingulate Cortex, Dorsal Thalamus Nuclei, Fornix, and Mammilary Bodies |
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How are larger regions of the brain, such as the neocortex, divided into smaller subdivisions or cortical fields? How can we determine Cytoarchitecture of a given field?
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Well Cortical Columns form processing units or functional modules of the brain. Examination of laminar differences (layer thickness, cell density & size) can also help us determine the Cytoarchitecture of a given field.
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Are Cortical Columns a fixed structure in the cortex? |
No! And the brain should not be regarded as a "mosaic" of cortical columns. |
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The largest fiber tract in the brain? |
Corpus callosum |
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What is the Anterior Commisure? |
Smaller fiber bundle connecting temporal lobes. |
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Where is CSF manufactured? |
Choroid Plexus of the ventricles |
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The Carotid Artery supplies...? |
Anterior and Middle Cerebral Arteries |
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The Vertebral Artery supplies...? |
Posterior Cerebral Artery |
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What two arteries does the Circle of Willis join? |
The Carotid and Vertebral Arteries |
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What is Neuroscience? |
The study of the nervous system |
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What is Biological Psychology? |
Study of biological bases of psychological processes and behavior. |
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List and Organize the Biological Levels from Highest to Lowest |
Social, Organ, Neural Systems, Brain Region, Circuit, Cellular, Synaptic, Molecular |
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In Vivo versus In Vitro
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In Life versus In Glass.
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Think about In-Vitro Fertilization
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Is the Cortical Sheet homogenous? |
No, it's made up of multiple cortical fields |
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What is the Neurophysiological Technique?
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Sticking an electrode in the brain
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What do we use Extracellular Multiunit Recording for?
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Mapping of cortical fields by defining receptive fields and determining boundaries.
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What is a Receptive Field?
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Portion of sensory receptor array that when stimulated produces a neural response.
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What is the Architechtonic Method? What can we find out from Architecture? How do we use Nissl Stains?
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Very broad range of techniques used to look at structure of brain. Function. We can use Nissl Stains (which are attracted to RNA and ER in nucleus) to determine the morphology of the soma.
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What else can the Nissl Stain be used for?
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To subdivide cortical areas & other neural structures.
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What is Topographic Representation?
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Situation where adjacent portions of the sensory epithelium are represented on adjacent portions of the neural structure.
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What do we find when architectonic techniques are done in conjunction with electrophysiological recording techniques? |
Cortical Fields or Thalamic Nuclei that have different functions actually look different |
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What is the Neuroanatomical Tracing Technique used for?
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To examine connections of a cortical field or part of brain with other parts of brain.
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What is Retrograde Transport?
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When substance is taken up @ axon terminal & transported toward cell body.
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What is Antergorade Transport?
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When substance is taken up @ cell body and transported toward axon.
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Give the low-down on Isotropic Fractionation
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Helps examine cellular composition of different parts of brain in different animals. 1) Remove piece of brain of interest, 2) Grind tissue to create isotropic suspension in which only nuceli of tissue remain.. 3) Stain for Dapi (which will stain for all nuclei) and Neu N (which will stain only nuclei of neurons), then count the # expressed for each. 4);Neurons are expressed as fraction of total # of nuclei (the rest of nuclei are Glial Cells). 5) You can estimate density by measuring the exact volume of tissue and thus quantify the cellular composition.
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Briefly describe the Lesion/Behavioral Method |
1) Observe animal's natural behavior. 2) Lesion the piece of the brain you think is responsible for it. 3) Observe changes in animal's natural behavior. |
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Briefly describe developmental manipulations
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This is where you manipulate aspect of developing nervous system & then examine effects on connectivity, architecture, organization, and behavior in resulting phenotype.
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Broca
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Briefly describe molecular manipulations
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This is where you add, delete, or transform gene function in mice. Examine effects on connectivity, architecture, organization, and behavior in resulting phenotype.
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Broca
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Briefly describe Optogenetics |
This is a technique used to directly stimulate or deactivate very particular region of brain. One inserts light sensitive ion channels into neurons, & then stimulate these with light using a fiber optic. Some organisms naturally produce light sensitive proteins called opsins. These opsins can open an ion channel in response to light. |
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What light does Channelrhodopsin respond to, and then what happens? |
Responds to *Blue* light - sodium ions enter the cell causing depolarization |
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What light does Halorhodopsin respond to, and then what happens? |
Responds to *Yellow* light - Cl- ions enter the cell causing hyperpolarization |
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What is Optical Imaging |
This is where visualization of neural activity is achieved by measuring and amplifying light reflected from the cortex. Small differences in light under different stimulus conditions are amplified and then color-coded so that 2-D maps of some stimulus feature can be readily observed. |
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What's the hoo-ha about the Neuron Doctrine? |
Well Golgi was special and developed the Golgi stain. He thought neurons were continuous. But Ramon y Cajal demonstrated that neurons are in *fact* contiguous. The Neuron Doctrine says 1) The brain is composed of separate neurons which are independent structurally, metabolically, and functionally contiguous but not continuous. 2) Information is transmitted from one neuron to another across gaps called synapses. |
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What is the mitochondrion involved in? |
Metabolic Activities |
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What are the Ribosomes involved in? |
Synthesize new proteins. Some attached to ER. |
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What is the Endoplasmic Reticulum involved in? |
Network of thin tubes that transport newly synthesized proteins. |
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What are Lysosomes involved in? |
Contain enzymes that break down chemicals |
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What is the Golgi Complex involved in? |
Network of vesicles preparing hormones and other products for secretion |
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What are receptors? |
Specialized cells that translate physical energy into electrochemical energy. |
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So what's the deal with Glial Cells? What are some things Astrocytes are involved in? What is something Microglia is involved in? |
They do *more* than hold up brain cells. They do *more* than provide nutrients, clean up neural messes & detritus, and support the cell. For example, Astrocytes regulate ionic balance and deal with intersynaptic transmission. They modulate a neuron and may play a role in plasticity. Microglia may play a role in naturally occurring cell death during development. |
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What are receptors? |
Molecules that change configuration when NT attaches to them & generate a hyper or depolarization in the post-synaptic element. |
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What are dendritic spines? |
Short outgrowths thought to be important for memory, which increase surface area of dendrite, and can undergo change under some conditions (stress) |
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Axon |
Conducting portion of neuron. |
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Axon Hillock |
Point of summation of graded potential, where action potential is initiated |
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What is the Action Potential? Does it follow the time-course and amplitude of a stimulus? |
Electrochemical events of neuron that travel along axon and serves as form of communication w/ other neurons. An all-or-none electrical response that occurs when threshold is reached. Does not follow time-course and amplitude of a stimulus. |
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What is an Ion? |
A charged molecule |
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What is a Cation? |
A positively charged molecule |
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What is an Anion? |
A negatively charged molecule |
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What is an Ion Channel? |
A pore in the membrane that permits the passage of certain ions. |
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What are the three types of electrical potential? |
Resting Potential/Membrane Potential, Action Potential, Local Potentials or Graded Potentials |
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Astroctyes |
Connected to blood vessels, form the dura, provide structural support, may reguate ionic balance at synapse, involved in synaptic transmission, and may be involved in plasticity. |
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Microglia |
Migrates to site of injury or disease and removes debris, appears to be involved in naturally occurring cell death during development |
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Blood-Brain Barrier |
Small capillaries (tight fit) - offers greater resistance to the passage of molecules compared to other structures. |
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What four phenomena lead to Resting Potential? |
1) Concentration Gradient 2) Selectively Permeable Membrane 3) Active Transport 4) Electrostatic Forces |
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Concentration of Na+ Outside & Inside Cell? |
Many Outside, Few Inside |
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Concentration of K+ Outside & Inside Cell? |
Few Outside, Many Inside |
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Concentration of Cl- Outside & Inside Cell? |
Many Outside, Few Inside |
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Concentration of Ca2+ Outside & Inside Cell? |
Many Outside, Few Inside |
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Concentration of -Proteins Outside & Inside Cell? |
Few Outside, Many Inside |
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Do Sodium ions want in or out? |
In |
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Do Potassium ions want in or out? |
Out |
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Action of Na+/K+ Pump |
3 Na+ out and 2 K+ in |
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What is a Graded or Local Potential? What are they called? |
Slight depolarizations or hyperpolarizations inside the cell that follow the amplitude and time-course of the stimulus. EPSP & IPSP. |
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What does Depolarize mean? |
To become more positive with respect to outside |
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What does Hyperpolarize mean? |
To become more negative with respect to outside |
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Five Stages of Action Potential |
1) Open K+ channels create Resting Potential 2) Some Na+ channels open, depolarizing cell to threshold 3) At threshold, additional voltage-gated Na+ channels open, causing a rapid-change of polarity - the action potential 4) Na+ channels are inactivated, gated K+ channels open, repolarizing and even hyperpolarizing the cell (after-potential) 5) All gated channels close. The cell returns to its resting potential. |
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Refractory Period |
Time when only *some* stimuli can produce an Action Potential. |
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Absolute Refractory Phase |
Time when *no* action potentials are produced. |
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Relative Refractory Phase |
Time when only *strong* stimuli can produce an Action Potential. |
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Why do action potentials travel in one direction? |
Because of the refractory state of the membrane after a depolarization |
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Situation of Excitation |
Activity of one cell excites (depolarizes) another cell. |
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Situation of Inhibition |
Activity of one cell inhibits (hyperpolarizes) another cell. |
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What is an endogenous ligand? Is it an agonist or antagonist? |
A naturally occurring molecule. Usually an agonist. |
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What is an exogenous ligand? Is it an agonist or antagonist? |
A toxin or a drug resembling endogenous ligand. Receptor agonist. |
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What is a Competitive Antagonist? |
Something that messes with the agonist getting to sit in its usual spot. |
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What is a Noncompetitive Agonist or Antagonist? |
Something that doesn't mess with anything and sits in different spot than other things. |
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What do we *want* to measure when it comes to the brain? |
Action potentials, neurotransmitters, synaptic activity, structural connectivity, cellular-level anatomy |
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Direct methods of imaging neuronal activity |
EEG & MEG |
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Indirect methods of imaging neuronal activity |
fMRI, PET, NIRS (Near Infrared Spectroscopy) or DOI (Diffuse Optical Imaging) |
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Indirect methods of imaging connectivity |
Diffusion MRI |
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What do EEG & MEG measure? |
Excitatory Post-Synaptic Activity |
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What does PET do? |
Imaging of radio-active tracers |
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What does NIRS involve? |
Light of a certain wavelength you shine into the brain & then detect in a location a few cms away. |
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Important Concepts for Brain Imaging |
Specificity, Spatial Resolution, Temporal Resolution, Penetration Depth & Quantification |
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Time-Scale of Neuronal Activity |
Milliseconds to 10's of milliseconds |
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Blood-Flow Transit Time |
A few seconds |
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Kinetics of intravascular tracer injection - Time Scale? |
Tens of seconds to minutes |
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Advantages of EEG |
Directly measures neuronal activity, High temporal resolution (milliseconds), Inexpensive |
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Disadvantages of EEG |
Poor spatial resolution, Limited Penetration (measures only cortical activity) |
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MEG is most sensitive to ... |
Activity coming from Sulci |
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Advantages of MEG |
Directly measures neuronal activity, High temporal resolution (milliseconds) |
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Disadvantages of MEG |
Spatial Resolution, Measures only cortical activity, very expensive |
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PET involves ... |
Injection of radioactive tracers. |
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Advantages of PET |
Extremely sensitive, flexible, quantitative and molecular specificity |
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Disadvantages of PET |
Requires exogenous radionuclide tracers, very expensive, poor temporal resolution |
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What happens with an MRI? |
Placed inside very strong magnet, radio waves used to excite protons in body, receiver coil picks up signal from protons,... |
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BOLD tells you what? |
Proportion of DeOxy to Oxy |
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When you see an fMRI activation does it mean the cells are excited? |
No, it could mean they're inhibited too. |
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When blood flow increases in an area...? |
Blood oxygenation goes up, blood deoxygenation goes down |
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Is fMRI relative or absolute? |
Relative - measures percent signal change over baseline. |
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Is PET relative or absolute? |
Absolute - measures biological quantitatively in real units |
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Can you compare fMRI's between subjects? |
Nope! |
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Advantages of BOLD fMRI? |
No exogenous tracers required, repeated and rapid stimulus presentation is possible, relatively high resolution |
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Disadvantages of BOLD fMRI? |
Indirect measure of neuronal activity, temporal resolution limited by the hemodynamic response (seconds), expensive, not quantitative |
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Diffuse Optical Imaging (DOI) |
Measures changes in oxyhemoglobin and deoxyhemoglobin concentration - uses light |
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DOI Advantages |
No exogenous contrast agents required, very inexpensive, high temporal resolution (milliseconds) |
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DOI Disadvantages |
Limited penetration depth and spatial resolution, not quantitative or absolute, indirect measure |
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Diffusion MRI |
Tractography based on MR Diffusion Imaging |
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Diffusion MRI Advantages |
No exogenous tracers required, can determine multiple orientations in a voxel |
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Diffusion MRI Disadvantages |
Multiple individual fibers crossing in a voxel cannot be directly resolved, underlying relation to anatomy remains unclear |
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