Perspectives

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**2 influences of science and technology

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Intellectual (how we understand and believe)

Practical (how we act/behave)

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Case studies

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Narrative structure- allows us to view process of discovering a theory

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**Different Dimensions in the event of science

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Scientific content, personal elements (biography), available tools, larger scientific context, social and cultural setting, thematic presuppositions

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Tools for DNA discovery

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large-scale models, and Franklins X-Ray defraction patterns

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**"Plato's Problem"

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The world seems to be different than how it really is- saving the appearances

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Steps of scientific discovery

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find a problem, construct a model, deciding if it fits, convince others, spread the word

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**3 types of models

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Scale- used in engineering- exact same as thing but difference in size.

Analog- what you notice in real life that is similar in theory (atoms are structured like a solar system, etc)

Theoretical- representational signs, abstract in imagination or words

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**Theoretical Hypothesis

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Statement about a relationship between a theoretical model and the aspect it is representing

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**2 parts of a scientific theory

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- family of models,

- set of theoretical hypotheses

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Data

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get it by physical interaction, must have reliable detection, reproducability

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**Prediction, Projection, Retrodiction

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Pred- future time

Projections- present time

Retrodiction- back in time

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Hypothetico

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Deductive method

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**Indirect vs. Direct conformation

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Indirect- phenomenon agrees with a model. Like seeing with a microscope

Direct- Data and prediction agree. Like seeing with a telescope

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**3 types of reasoning

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Deductive-necessary consequence (indefeasible- derivation of predictions from models)

Inductive- Probable consequence (defeasible- derivation of an evaluation of theoretical hypothesis

Abductive- derivation of a hypothesis from phenomenon

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Two Chain Model for DNA

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Predicted H2O amount (defeasible evidence), Predicted X-Ray diffraction pattern (indefeasible)

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Case study of a HISTORICAL episode

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scentific context, context of justification, context of discovery, private development of practitioner, individual psychology, sociological setting, cultural setting, logic of science, themata

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**Ptolemaic vs Copernican Model

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P- Earth is center of solar system and the planets and sun revolve around it

C- Sun is center and the planets revolve around it. - Galileo proved it by phases of venus

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Galileo

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Proved Copernican model, first person to use telescope, Ballistic motion

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**3 principles to help Galileo solve Ballistic motion

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FIR

Law of Free fall

Principle of Inertia

Principle of Relativity

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The argument of a feather

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The tickle of a feather comes from the skin, not the feather

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**Newton

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Had the idea of "bodies" or "corpuscles" that were little bodies with size and momentum (kind of like atoms)

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Properties of Newtonian Bodies

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Position, Velocity, Acceleration, Mass, Momentum, Force

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1st Law of Motion by Newton

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If there is no force acting on a body, the momentum will remain constant

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2nd law of motion

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If there is a force acting on the body, that body will accelerate by an amount proportional to the strength of the force and inversely to it's mass

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3rd Law of Motion

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If one body exerts force on a second, then the second exerts a force on the first that is equal in strength but opposite in direction

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Halley's Comet

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He predicted comet,also convinced Newton to publish his work

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**Darwin's Revolutionary Characteristics

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Naturalism- Nature is a self-propagating system

Mechanism- Process of evolution is done by struggle to survive and not design

Indeterminism- Probability, chance, and uniqueness in nature

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**Darwin's 5 theories

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1. Evolution per se- the world is not constant, but ever changing

2. Common descent for all life

3. Multiplication of species (diversity)

4. Gradualism- no huge jumps between species

5. Natural selection- abundant variation and the most useful variation is selected for

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What is Darwin's engine?

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Pattern+Copy mechanism+Variation+Selection+Reproduction= evolution

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**Meaning of "Meaning"

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-Extension- show representations to show meaning

-Intension- criteria for finding; defining

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**Two species of Impression

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1. Vagueness- imprecise intensions

2. Ambiguity- imprecise extensions

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**The Contrast Theory of Meaning

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The precision or informativeness of a claim is directly proportional to the range of possible meanings excluded by context (or "contextual reference")

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Marginal Science

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-Has a lot of defeasible evidence, may not use a model to represent the world, deny the relevance of data that supports hypothesis,

-Many predictions and the predictions are vague

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** 3 Types of Judgement

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1. Analytic- judging that a sentence is true in virtue of logical form- not fals.

2. Synthetic- judging sentence is true in virtue of agreeing with an observable empirical fact- falsifiable

3. Value- asserts what ought to be the case- not falsifiable

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Freud's 3 mechanisms of judgment

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Id- undifferentiated desires

Ego- adjusting desires to make decision

Superego-The choices, the menu

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** What does statistics answer?

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- Prevalence of various characteristics exhibited by individuals

- causes of characteristics exhibited by individuals

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** 2 types of Statistics

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- Descriptive- deductive

- Inferential- Inductive generalizations (reasoning from a sample to a population0

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** 2 constraints on samples to ensure inductive strength

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-Adequacy-large enough

- Representativeness- prop. representation of every variable that affects the criterion variable

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**Values of variables in a statistical model must be:

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exclusive (exhibiting only 1 value) and exhaustive (every item must exhibit some value)

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Statistical distribution

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Range of variables expressed as a proportion

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** Correlation

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relationship between 2 variables

A causes B

B causes A

C causes A and B

No cause

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Causal Models of Individuals

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1. Deterministic- cause necessities-

You have an individual, causal factor, effects, and Residual state If c-> e and nc ->ne= positive

2. Probabilistic- c is a probabilistic causal factor for E in I characterized by a residual state when the probability is greater or less with the presence of the cause

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** Relying on opinions of experts is dangerous

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Plato

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** 3 characteristics of scientific knowledge

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1. Scientific explanations must be naturalistic

2. Scientific hypotheses must be as simple as possible

3. Scientific claims must be testable (to have claims that are falsifiable)

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**"Nullius in Verba"

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Don't tell me, show me

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Scientism

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Misusing statements of science in areas where the may not be legit. applied

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Physikoi

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Natural Philosophy

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Milesians

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Thales, Anaximander, Anaximes

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** 4 concepts that started the first scientific investigation

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1. cosmos- order

2. physis- natural world

3. arche-principle

4. logos- story

Provide a logos of the arche of the cosmos of the physis

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**What is the Arche asking?

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What cause change (kinesis)

What causes multiplicity (monas/hoi polloi)

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** Thales

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Fluids account for multiplicity and change. Predicted solar eclipse for 585 BC

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** Anaximander

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Thales disciple. to aperion- the boundless

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** Anaximes

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rarefied air is the principle of change and multiplicity

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"Ex nihilo, nihil facit"

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Anaximander- out of nothing, nothing comes

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** Episteme/Doxa

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Episteme- science

Doxa- belief

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Pythagoras

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Gave first proof using pi and showing it's infinity of decimals.

Pythagoreans believed in "metaphysikois"- from psyche, travelling souls. this is why they were vegetarians. Finite amount of stuff, finite amount of space, Infinite amount of time. Things must happen again (eternal recurrence)

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**Paradox

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Paradoxese- incredible, unexpected

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** Paradox of origin

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anaximander

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Babylonian thought

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knew concept of pythagorean theorem, but lacked proof

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** Hiappasus's paradox (why he got floated at sea)

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1. physical reality has a math. structure.

2. Physical phenomenon can be expressed in numbers

3. numbers are integers or a ratio of integers

4. diagonal on unit square is not a ratio of integers

Irrational= Incommensurables- were finally accepted in 1872

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**how to make any Pythagorean triplet

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a: any odd #

b: (a^2-1)/2

c: b-1

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** Philospphy

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phila- love

sophia- wisdom

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istoria

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History

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** Monism

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Believed in 1 thing causing change and multiplicity of the universe.

From physis: Thales, Anaximander, anaximes, pythagoras

From cosmos: Heraclitus and Parmenides

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** Pluralism

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Believe more than one fundamental kind

From vitalism (living forces)- Empedocles and Anaxagoras

From mechanism (non-living forces)- Democitus, Leuccipos

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** Heraclitus

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Said the world is always changing and that "fire" is the fundamental element. Things are made of parts, and you must have a force to cause change.

Unity in opposites causes change and mulitplicity No beginnning

- Cratylus- his disciple

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** Parmenides

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The worlds doesn't change, but just appears to be changing

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** Empedocles

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There's 4 roots and forces cause things to happen.

(attraction and repulsion as well)

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** Anaxagoras

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infinite seeds and something intelligent orders the seeds

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** Democritus

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Atomism- Everything was made of small building blocks hooked together like velcro

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** 2 spheres of human activity within Athenian Democracy

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-Polis (political)- all public

-oeconomia- private realm

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** Vocab: idiotes, ecclesia, arete

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idiotes- private person

ecclesia- assembly

arete- excellence in ethical behavior

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Athenian life

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Had spoil system (random assignment of collectors), democracy, hired sophists to teach young about the arts of argument, literature, etc.

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** The Sophists

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teachers of athenians, made shift from natural world theory to political and ethical world. Protagorus, Gorgias, Thrasymachus, Critias

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** Protagorus

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"homo mansura" "man is the measure"- what is true is relative to person percieving

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Gorgias

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"Anything can be proven"

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Thrasymachus

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"might makes right"

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Critias

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morality is a myth designed to empower rulers of the others

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**Socrates

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Doesn't trust listening to sophists. "Sophists sell unknown goods to the soul" studied philosophy, tries to find out was goo and justice is. Seeked wisdom from some queen lady. Ti estin- what is it? Was killed when Athenians blamed him for loss of Peloponesian war.

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** Vocab: Apologea, Symposium

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Apologea- defense

Symposium- drinking fest (I could use that right about now)

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** Plato

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Platon- broad shoulders

Wrote Res publica

The allegory of the cave and the Divided line stuff.

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** Plato's Doctrine's

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1. Evil=ignorance

2. judgement comes from either sensation or intellect

3. Forms are the originals of which the individuals are copies

4. Human soul/mind is separate from the body. (Like a pilot on a ship)

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** Aristotle's Doctrines

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Plato's pupil.

1. "Thought moves nothing"

2. Sensations are the transform of objects to the mind and intellect will generalize from the particulars

3. "Third Man argument"- only one world

4. The soul is the form of the body- can't separate in reality, only in thought

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** Vocab: Heresy, Barbarian, Mathematics

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Heresy (heresius)- choice

Barbarian (barbaros)- speaker of foreign language

Mathema- a lesson

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** Crucial Experiment

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cross roads, instance of the finger post

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** What rule do we use to determine if a sample size is adequate?

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Law of Diminishing Returns

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What are the two types of samples?

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random, stratified