Methodology

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What is research?

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- data is collected systematically

- data is interpreted systematically

- there is a clear goal

Systematic - logical + explanations

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3 modes of knowledge creation

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Mode 1: creating fundamental knowledge

Mode 2: creating practical relevant knowledge, with emphasis on collaboration

Mode 3: creating knowledge that is mainly relevant to the human condition

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Basic/fundamental/pure research

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Research that focuses only on understanding business and management processes and their outcomes

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Applied research

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Emphasises on practical knowledge to help with decision making

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Delphi technique

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Group of people who are interested in the same research ideas generate and pick a more specific research idea

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Preliminary inquiry

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Turning a research idea into a research question before turning it into a research project

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Types of research questions

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1. Descriptive: when, what, who, where...

2. Evaluative/exploratory: how effective?...

3. Explanatory: why?...

4. Descriptive-explanatory: the description is used as a precursor to explanation

5. Evaluative: how well does something work.

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Theory

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Theory is concerned with causality, meaning that it regards the cause and effect relationship between two or more variables

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Deductive approach

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When someone is taking a clear theoretical standpoint and wishes to test the validity of existing theories through the collection of data and research

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Inductive approach

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When someone tries to build a theory from the collected and analysed data

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Three kinds of theories

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1. Grand theories - may change our view on the world

2. Middle range theories - significant but nit as much as grand theories

3. Substansive theories - focused on a particular setting, group or time

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Literature review

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A review in which one makes reasoned judgements about the value of pieces of literature

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Critical review

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Should be a constructive analysis that critically develops a transparent arguement about what the chosen literature tells you about a research question

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Literature sources

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1. Primary literature: first occurence of a piece of work, includes public sources and also unpublished work. Very detailed but not easy to acces. Sometimes referred to as grey literature

2. Secondary literature: aimed at a wider audience, easier to locate and better covered by tertiary literature. Includes books, journals...

3. Tertiary literature: includes online search tools, databases and dictionaries

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SMART

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Specific

Measurable

Achievable

Relistice

Timely

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Hypothesis

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A prediction of what you think is going to happen

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Incentive theory

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States the a certain behavior can be rewarded through a hygiene factor (salary, company policty, relationships..) to cause that action again

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Motivation theory

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States that besides incentives there should be an intrinsic motivation which will lead to higher job satisfaction.

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Three levels of research questions

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1. Micro: concentrates on individuals (local impact)

2. Meso: concentrates on industries (impact to a city)

3. Macro: concentrates on a broader group (whole society/national impact)

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Research philosophy

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A term that describes the development of knowledge and the nature of that knowledge

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Pragmatism

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Centers around solving a problem

Combines all approaches

Typically multi-method

"Can we mix approaches to solve the problem"?

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Ontology

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A philosophical position that refers to the nature of a social phenomena/reality

Objectivism

Subjectivism/social constructionism

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Objectivism

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Focuses on the objective world, things exist with a purpose independant of those social actors concerned with their existence

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Subjectivism/social constructionism

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Focuses of social interactions. Social reality is a construct, made up of perceptions and consequent actions

Weak: states that social constructs are based on brute facts - measures

Strong: states that reality depends on language and social habits - studies

Major critic is that it does not take into account the effects of social phenomena on society

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Epistemology

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Refers to the best way to study a social phenomena

Regards what constitutes acceptable knowledge in an area of study

Positivism, interpretivism, realism, postmodernism, pragmatism

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Positivism

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-Consists of isolating and studying the phenomena

-reality exists independant of us

-looks for causal relationships

-rule of falsibility (all swans are black unless i can prove otherwise)

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Realism

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Objects exist independant of human mind.

Direct realism: what you see is what you get

Critical realism: Mediator between the two extremes. Identifies both the object and its purpose. Recognizes subjectivism while aiming for the truth as well as objective account. Epistemological relativsm

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Interpretivism

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Studies and interprets social interactions.

Inductive because first observes then builds up theories.

Value bound

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Postmodernism

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Studies power relations. Attempt to deconstruct domination

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Four paradigms in management research

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Subjectivist(observes and tries to understand how people interact)

Objectivist (studies interactions of different variables)

Radical change- implies societal change

Regulation- maintains the current situation

1. Subjectivist+radical change: radical humanist.

2. Objectivist+radical change: radical structuralist

3. Subjectivist+regulation: interpretative

4. Objectivist+regulation: functionalist

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Types of research

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Quantitative: based on deductive methods, if the research is ontological it will be directed towards objectivism, if its epistemological it will be directed towards positivism or direct realism

Quantitative: based on inductive methods, if ontological then social constructionism, if epistemological then interpretivism or critical realism

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Different types of methods

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Mono method: single data collection

Multiple methods: uses more than one quantitative or qualitative method but does not mix them

Mixed methods: combines quantitative and qualitative data collection techniques and analysis procedures. Usually critical realism or pragmatism, can be inductive, abductive or deductive

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Multi method studies

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Multi method quantitative study:

Both methods are used with a prevelance of quantitative methods

Multi method qualitative study: both methods are used with a prevelance of qualitative methods.

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Mixed method studies

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Mixed method research: consists of using both qualitative and quantitative data, which are then analyzed in a parallel or sequential way

Mixed model research: consists of combining qualitative and quantitative data both in collection and in the analysis

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Concurrent triangulation design

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The use of two or more sources of data in the same research to observe how they support each other

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Sequential mixed methods research

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Double phase sequential research design leads to:

Sequential exploratory research design: where you first use qualitative and then quantitative data

Sequential explanatory research design: when you first use quantitative and then qualitative data.

Multi phase design: refers to mixed methods research that involves multiple phases of data collection

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Different research strategies

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Experiments: looks for the causal relationship, has to be objectivist and positivistic. Treatment group and control group.

Survey studies: structured interviews, can be both descriptive and explanatory

Archival research: uses secondary data to conduct research. Any ontological or epistemological approach

Focus groups: used for collection of qualitative data. Common, when the objective is to study how people interact

Ethnography: related to symbolic interactionism on a micro level. Some exposed to a different culture... interpretative

Grounded theory: involves building a theory relying on empirical research. Usually done when there is insufficient or no theories on the subject. Realist and contructionist. Qualitative. Inductive. Uses theoretical sampling

Action research: researcher is also the object of study. Usually dine when there is a need of solving a concrete real life problem

Case studies:

-holistic: refers to the unit if analysis(big picture, study a business as a whole)

-embeded: refers to multiple units of analysis(more specific cases, study the communication department of a business)

Narrative inquiry

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Operationalization

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Mean to develop a concrete definition of research concepts. Measurable, quantifiable/analysable.

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Credibility of research findings

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1. Reliablility (dependability): consists of determining whether similar results can be achieved by different researchers on different occasions

2. Validity: consists of determining whether the results are coherent with what was intended to be measured. "Is the data covering what i wanted to study?"

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Internal/external/construct validity

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Internal (credibility): when the researcher displays a causal relationship after interventions in the lab

External (transferability): are the findings generalized enough?

Ecological: can they be generalized outside the lab

Construct: are the measurements reflecting what was intended to be measured?

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Kinds of case studies

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Single case study: which is used where it represents a critical case or an extreme/unique case

Multiple case studies: include multiple case. Focuses on wether findings from the first case can occur in other cases and change the studied set of case if necessary. Starts deductively before induction

Embeded

Holistic

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Threats to reliability

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Participant error: adversely alters the way in which a paticipant performs

Participant bias: induces false response

Researcher error: any factor that alters the researchers interpretation

Researcher bias: induction of any bias in the researchers recording of responses

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Concepts and variables

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Concepts: labels we attribute to social phenomena

Variables: measurements of social phenomena

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Types of variables

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Independant variable: variable that is being manipulated or changed to measure its impact on a dependant variable

Dependant variable: changes in response to changes in other variables

Mediating variable: variable between IV and DV and helps explain the relationship between the two

Moderating variable: variable that increase or decreases the effect

Control variable: kept constant to avoid influencing the effect of the IV and DV

confounding variable: influence both DV and IV causing a false association

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Cause and effect relationship

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A casual relationship implies that an element influences another one.

Correlation does not imply causation

Spurious relationship: correlation but no causation

Bi-directional causation: an element influences another one which in return influence the former.

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Two main views on research ethics

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Doentological view: the following rules should guide the researchers conduct of the project. Therefore not following the rules cannot be justified.

Teleological view: the consequences of a conducts should decide whether the act of conduct is justified or not and not the predertermined rules.

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Defining a time horizon

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Cross sectional studies: studying a phenomena at a particular time, or snapshot.

Longitudinal studies: studying the change and development of particular phenomena

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Research Onion

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Philosophies:

-positivism

-pragmatism

-critical realism

-post modernism

-interpretivism

Approaches:

-deductive

-inductive

-abductive

Strategies:

-case studies

-surveys/structured interviews

-narrative inquiry

-experiment

-ethnography

-action research

-grounded theory

-archival research

Choices:

-mono

-multi

-mixed

Time horizons:

-longitudinal

-cross sectional

Techniques and procedures:

-data collection

-data analysis

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Levels of response to questionnaires

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Complete refusal - no answers

Break-off - less than 50% were answered

Partial response - 50-80% were answered

Complete response - all were answered

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Five main techniques for selecting probability sampling

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Simple random

Systematic random

Stratified random

Cluster

Multi stage

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Simple random sampling

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Selecting the sample at random from the sampling frame using a computer or random number tables.

Number the cases fron 0 to whatever

Select until sample size is met

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Systematic random sampling

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Select the sample at regular intervals from the sampling frame. Select the first one randomly then using a sampling fraction select the rest

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Stratified random sampling

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Divides the population into two or more relevant strata, then a random sample ( simple or systematic) is drawn from each.

Helps increase precision.

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Multi stage cluster sampling

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Population is divided into groups - clusters.

The sampling frame becomes the list of clusters. Using random sampling the researcher selects clusters.

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Quota sampling

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A type of stratified sample in which selection of cases within strata is entirely non-random

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Purposive/judgemental sampling

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Involves the researcher to use judgement to select the cases that are most suitable for answering the research question and to meet objectives

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Kinds of purposive sampling

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Extreme case/deviant - focuses on unusual or special cases

Heterogeneous/maximum variation - uses judgement of the researcher to choose the participants with sufficiently divers characteristics to generate maximum variation possible in the collected data

Homogeneous - focuses on one specific subgroup in which all members are very similiar

Critical case - selects critical cases because they are either important or can make a dramatic point

Typical case - enable the researcher to generate an illustration of what is typical to those who will read the research report and are unfamiliar with the topic

Theoretical - sample selection is dictated by the needs of the theory being developed. Thus sampling occurs during the research as more participants are needed

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Volunteer sampling types

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Snowball sampling - non random sampling. Participants are not chosen to be part but they volunteered. It is used when there are difficulties in identifying member from the target population

Self selection sampling - occurs when the researcher allows each case, usually individuals, to identify their desire to take part in the research

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Haphazard sampling

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Nonrandom sampling, is called convenience sampling. This is a way of sampling in which one haphazardly selects cases that are the easiest to obtain for the sample

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Participant observation

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Complete participant- takes part not revealing himself to the group

Complete observer- doesnt take part, does not reveal himself

Participant as observer- takes part and reveals himself

Observer as participant- doesnt take part and reveals himself

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Data collection and analysis of participant observations

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Primary observations- data that explain what happenes at the time (diary)

Secondary data- interprets primary data

Experiential data- perceptions and feelings of the researcher while researching

Contextual data- data related to the research setting

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Participant observation reliability and validity

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High ecological validity

Observer error- lack of understanding, misinterpretation of the researcher

Observer bias- researcher uses subjectivd view to interpret happenings in the setting

Observer effect- presence of the researcher affects the behavior of others

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Types of interviews

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Structured- predetermined and standardised set of questions. Quantifiable

Semi structured- non standardised , qualitative, list of questions but not all are necessarily asked. Deductive and inductive

Unstructured- informal, "in depth" interviews, informant interview is where the interviewee leads and talks about stuff, focused interview is where the interviewer controls the direction of the interview

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Selective observation

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People choose to ignore certain observations and focus on those that support their own beliefs

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Indicators

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1. Single item indicator: one measure available to us out of multiple measures that can answer a question (level of religiousity).

2. multiple item indicators: through a series of questions a valid measure of an abstract concept can be provided. Gives deeper understanding. A series of MII related to one concept is a scale. More threat to reliability and validity

3. Multi dimensional indicators: measures conceots with multiple dimensions, which are usually highly abstract. Start with a large abstract concept and see that it is made up of multiple dimensions, these dimension then can be measured with multiple item indicators.

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Two main types of variables

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Discrete: fixed sets of seperate values or attributes which can form distinct categories (gender,sex)

Continuous: infinite values (profit)

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Four levels of measurement in quantitative research

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Nominal: indicates that there is a difference between categories but no order (marital status, occupations)

Dichotomous: when the are are only to variables possible (male female)

Ordinal: there is a differencs among categories which can be placed in some kind of logical order. Distance between them is meaningless. (Income level, low, medium, high)

Interval: theres a difference and logical order and a common distance between categories. No true zero. (IQ, temperature)

Ratio: theres a difference and logical order and a common distance between categories. There is a true zero. (Age, annual income)

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Cronbachs alpha

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Characteristic of scales. Used to estimate the reliability of the questionare

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Quasi experimental design

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when something cannot be tested in lab therefore the experiment is conducted in a more natural setting.

Less control over the independant variable

Random assignment is not possible

Less internal validity meaning lower precision

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Field experiment

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High external validity.

Research is done in the field.

Not high internal validity.

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Natural experiment

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Research studies conducted in realistic situations.

Advantages:

-Participants are not aware

-less ethical concern

-less expensive

Dis.:

-no random assignment

-lack of control

-observer bias

-difficult to replicate

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Reliability

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Internal: when there is consistency during the research project (more than one researcher)

External: refers to whether your data collection techniques would produce consistent findings if repeated

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Most general ethical issues

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Deception: passive analysis of the researcher without any participation

Lacking respect and causing harm: accessing data of others without having the knowledge and permission

Respecting privacy: disrespecting privacy and harming confidentiality of dats and anonymity of participants

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Inferred consent

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When the participant does not fully understand his rights and the researcher infers consent about the use of data

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Census

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The collection and analysis of data from every possible case or group within a population.

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Contrived data

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Data resulting from a research

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Four stages of case studies (theory testing case/ theory building)

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Testing: Propositions-data collection-data analysis-conclusions

Building: collection-analysis-propositions -conclusions

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Types of factors

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Endogenous- inside variable

Exogenous- outside variable

Extraneous- variable outside that is not of interest

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Data reduction, display, drawing conclusions

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Reduction: simplifying data and or selectively focusing on specific parts of these data

Display: summaries or diagrams or other visual displays

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Rationale of thick description

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Provides the reader with the tools for assessing generalizability

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Case studies establishment of credibility

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Research conducted accordong to cannons of good practice

Ensuring the validity through respondent validation or triangulation

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Research strategies and their resoected types of research

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Quantitative- experiment, survey

Qualitative- archival research, case study

Qualitative or quantitative- ethnography, action research, grounded theory, narrative inquiry

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Research strategies and their research approaches

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Inductive- grounded theory

Deductive- survey

Both- archival research, case study

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Critiques of qualitative research

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Generally create research designs that do not permit generalization

Develop close relationships with subject which limits their objectivity

Researchers often do not make their procedures of analysis transparent

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Ideographic research

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Focuses on the individual, everyone is unique and not generalizable

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Nomothetic research

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Attempts to etablish general laws and generalizations.

Objective, quantitative.

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Intrinsic case study

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Study of a case where the case itself is of primary interest

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Instrumental case

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The study of a case to provide insight into a oarticular issue, redraw generalizations or beuild theory

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Collective case study

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Exploration of multiple instrumental case studies

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Face validity

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Whether the qurstionnaire appears to makes sense