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79 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is language? |
Language is a unique property of the human cognitive system. |
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Languages in the World |
>6,000 languages in the world. English used as lingua franca -Many countries have >1 official language e.g. Canada & Switzerland |
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The Properties of Language |
Language is: -Symbolic: e.g. using written signs to refer to objects. -Structured: Rules govern how words may be combined. -Creative: Words can be combined in an infinite amount of ways. -Meaningful: Each word is associated with a concept. |
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Speech and Language |
Speech: The oral expression of language. Language: A code used to communicate with others |
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Phonemes |
-Smallest unit of sound that change meaning of a word e.g. gave->Save -Alphablocks: Used to teach children how to read. -English has more than 40 phonemes. |
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Morphemes |
-Morphemes are smallest meaningful unit of language. Word stems: e.g. 'dog' and 'run'. Prefixes: 'un' Suffixes: '-ed' '-ing' Rules e.g. Add '-ed' or '-d' to make word past tense Add '-s' to make word plural. |
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Higher Units of analysis |
Words: Stand alone and still have meaning. Syntax: Words combined using a set of rules. Semantics: Meaning of the word/ phrase. Pragmatics: relationship between context and meaning eg We need to talk may mean bad news in context. |
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Lexicon |
Lexicon: All the words we know (mental dictionary) Average student has between 50,000 and 100,000 words in vocabulary. |
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Sign language |
a system of communication using visual gestures and signs, as used by deaf people. |
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Which hemisphere is language typically lateralised to? |
Left Hemisphere |
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Language Development |
-Prenatal: Fetus sensitive to language -Postnatal: Cooing: interactional vocalisation :( Physical limitations in the vocal tract -4-12 months: Babbling: Putting vowels and consonants together/ Phonological Development -2years: Babbling->word production/ 1 word or 2 word speaker/ Semantic/Syntactic -6 years: Vocab 8,000-> 14,000/ Pragmatic Development Adulthood: language development continues throughout life. |
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Studies of Language |
Linguistic Anthropology: How language influences social life etc. Linguistics: Study rules of language etc. Psycholinguistics: Studies process of language acquisition etc. |
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Crucial Questions |
How do we acquire language? Is language INNATE/ learnt from ENVIRONMENT or BOTH? What happens if we are not exposed to language early in life? How do we recognise, understand and produce language? How does language develop in the brain? What is the relationship with rest of the cognitive system? |
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Methods/Tools for Investigation |
Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) NIRS (Near Infrared Spectroscopy) Electro-encephalography (EEG) Neuroimaging methods- studying the brain 'in vivo" |
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Prenatal Language Perception (methods of investigation) |
-microphone to see fetus hears -measuring fetal sensitivity to language -method of Habituation -measuring reactions Findings: a fetis can differentiate language from other sounds. They can also recognise (and prefer) the voice of the mother. (hepper et al 1994). |
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Postnatal Language Perception (methods of investigation) |
-baby presented with either various sounds or his/ her mothers voice -dummy connected to computer given to baby -auditory stimuli programmed to be controlled by sucking rate. Findings: Infants of only a few days old can control their behaviour to activate the playing of their mothers voice (Mehler et al 1988) |
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Experimental studies (methods of investigation) |
Pre-verbal language comprehension: the selective looking experiment. child hears: Oh look! Big bird is tickling Cookie Monster! or Oh look! Cookie Monster is tickling Big Bird! Findings: Children look at the screen that matches with the sentence, showing them to understand "who" did "what" to "whom"(Gleitman, 1990) Preverbal children understand the logic of a sentence. |
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Clinical Studies (neuropsychology) How damage can reveal function |
Aphasiology: study of language impairments. |
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Standardised tests (methods of investigation) |
Test of receptive grammar e.g. 'Not only the girl but also the cat is sitting) British Picture Vocabulary Scale: child points to the picture that matches the spoken word |
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Animal Studies (methods of investigation) |
Instense (and expensive) animal training. |
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Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs) - methods of investigation |
Computer simulations of language processing. |
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Neuroconstructivist approach- for studying cognitive development |
Convergence of different methods: Behavioural Neuroimaging Genetics Computational |
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Nature vs. nurture |
Are we prewired to language acquisition or not? |
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Noam Chomsky (Nativist Theory) |
-born with ability to build grammatical structures (UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR, UG) and specialised language learning mechanisms (Language Acquisition Device, LAD) |
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B.F. Skinner (Behaviourist Theory) |
-newborn brain is TABLA RASA- blank slate on which experience imprints structure. |
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Learning Grammar: nature & nurture |
Chomsky (1958) & Pinker (1994) -Imitation and reinforcement (corrections) are not enough to learn a language because e.g. children produce sentences they've never heard |
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Language Grammar |
Chomsky's argument: If children solely imitate, why say: 'goed' instead of 'went' if children are not corrected how do we get rid of "goed"? Answer: innate knowledge of grammar |
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Deep and Surface Structure- Chomsky's Theory of Transformational Grammar |
Surface structure: parts of the actual sentence Deep structure: the underlying form. Languages differ in their surface properties all share a deep structure |
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The Critical Period Hypothesis |
Critical period for learning language. as mature critical period draws to a close Later language learning becomes more difficult (Lenneberg 1967) |
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The Story of Genie (testing the critical hypothesis) |
-neglected -isolated -no linguistic skills -studied from 1971 to 1975 -was communicative through sounds and language -gained some limited language -Early childhood may be more a sensitive period than a critical period (johnson 2001) |
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Nativism |
-independent (modularity) -nature not nurture -different areas in the brain have specific language processes |
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Non-nativism |
-interactivity with other cognitive functions -Nature and nurture -Brain areas are not language specific |
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Evidence for innate language skills? The birth of Nicaraguan Sign Language (NSL) |
-Investigating the innate component of language (which is more evident in impoverished environments) |
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Senghaus & Coppola (2001) |
a natural experiment, the emergence of a new language developed by successive cohorts of deaf Nicaraguan children. |
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What makes NSL a language? |
Spatial modulations |
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NSL is taken as evidence for innate language skills |
:( surrounded by researchers who knew ASL How much does this matter? |
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An inherited speech and language disorder- the KE family: speech difficulties- verbal dyspraxia |
Lai, Fisher, Hurst, Vargha-Khadem& Monaco 2001) FSIQ low average (all unaffected members had IQs above this range) |
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Is the FOXP2 the 'language gene'? |
FOXP2-specific to language :( in other species & important for rapid planning i.e. critical for articulation during speech not language specific but language relevant |
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Can animals use language? |
Chimps can't talk-vocal tract too narrow can use hand gestures Is this language or imitation? |
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Chimp studies: washoe |
-taught ASL -learnt 40 signs :( informal studies :(not clear :) later studies more scientific |
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Nim Chimpsky |
-taught at Columbia university -treated as child -learnt 125 signs -could combine signs -lots of footage enabled analysis |
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Project Nim: Results- Terrace, Pettito, Sanders & Bever (1979) |
-showed evidence of syntax :( could not produce long phrases Mean length utterance Nim:1-2 deaf children 1.5-4 (19 months) |
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Is language innate? |
not enough evidence |
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Spoken language |
1st mode of communication |
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written |
literacy relatively recent development |
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Recognition of Spoken Words |
Complex: Lack of invariance Speaker variability segmentation |
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Recognition of Written Words |
Important to teach children to read etc |
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Studying word recognition (Rubinstein et al. 1970, 1971) |
lexical decision task press yes/ no key to stimuli of real word or non-word. response time (RT) and accuracy (CR) |
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What does the lexical decision tell us about word recognition? |
The Frequency Effect: quicker response for more frequently occurring words. |
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The Lexical Status Effect |
a non word takes longer to respond to than a word |
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Non-word Legality Effect |
quicker response with non-plausible letter strings |
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Additional Phenomena |
Word Similarity Effect: e.g. Pear/Paer Repetition Priming Effect: quicker response if the same word presented twice Semantic Priming Effect: quicker response when a word is preceded by a semantically related word. |
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Models of Lexical Processing |
Two types of model: 1) Serial access models 2) Direct access models |
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Search Model (forster 1976, 1979) |
Access file divided into bins ordered based on frequency use Faster RT if at top if rejected slower RT |
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The word superiority Effect |
Reicher 1969: letters easier to identify in a real written word |
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Interactive Activation Model (Rumelhart and McClelland, 1982) |
- A computational model. -Combines top down and bottom up (interactive approach) -can use top down knowledge of words to understand bottom up representations of letters. 1) the visual feature level 2) the letter level 3) the word level |
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Artificial Neural Networks (ANNs)- connectionist model. |
neurons= units connections= weights knowledge is distributed throughout different connections |
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Limitations of the models |
:( don't explain how lexicon develops :( don't include second language learning :( mere mechanistic description (Thomas and Van Heuven) |
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Basic brain anatomy |
2 cerebral hemispheres Gyrus: ridge Sulcus: grooves Grey matter: neurons White matter: axons- connections like a road map. Cerebrospinal fluid: In the brain. |
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Lobes of the brain |
Frontal Temporal Parietal Occipital |
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Cognitive neuropsychology- how damage can reveal function Aphasia |
the loss of a previous ability to speak or understand language. |
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Aphasia |
Broca's non-fluent aphasia: production difficulties. Conduction aphasia: damage to white matter- poor repetition. Wernicke's fluent aphasia: poor comprehension. |
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Brain imaging methods |
Positron Emmission Tomology: PET Magnetic Resonance Imaging: MRI Magneto-Encephalography: MEG |
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process of language |
Listening Speaking Reading Meaning |
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Decision Making |
Normative/ Descriptive Normative: Ideal outcome Descriptive: how it really should be taken. |
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Expected Value Theory |
Says people should want to maximise expected value However- people don't always do this |
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Daniel Kahneman & Amos Tversky |
would you prefer 85% chance of winning exp. |
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Prospect Theory |
-focus on financial decisions -relative gains and losses -loss aversion |
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Loss Aversion |
Utility-subjective value dislike for losing utility is greater than liking gaining same amount any kind of loss |
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Endowment Effect |
participants would sell ($7) mugs for more than participants would buy($3) them pain of losing something costs more than pleasure of buying something. |
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Framing effects |
-how situation is presented effects decision. e.g. based on gains and losses |
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Impact and Durability Bias |
Impact bias: overestimating length/ intensity of future feelings Durability Bias: overestimate negative effects lengths |
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Availability Heuristic |
Decisions biased on information that is familiar/ salient or recent |
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Representativeness Heuristic |
judge probability by how typical it is results from misconceptions about chance/ poor knowledge of base rates/ poor understanding of sample size. |
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Satisfying |
-people search for an acceptable solution -based on minimal requirements |
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Problem Solving |
problem: have a goal but don't know how to achieve thinking: process of mental exploration problems: well defined/ ill defined |
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Well defined problems |
Initial state & goal: clearly defined Possible moves& constraint rules: clearly defined. knowledge rich (requiring specialist knowledge)/ knowledge lean Adversary problems/ non-adversary problems. |
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Gestalt Approach to problem solving |
emphasis insight/ understanding -restructuring |
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Barriers to Insight: Set Effects |
-tendency to persist with the wrong solution to a problem -incorrectly understanding the constraints of a problem -must restructure |
