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155 Cards in this Set
- Front
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semantic memory |
permanent knowledge of meaning of words, collection of facts |
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episodic memory |
autobiographical, personal, specific events, accuracy debatable |
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flashback memory |
something vivid e.g. where were you when 9/11 happened? |
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procedural memory |
memory of sequence of operations
e.g. driving |
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what's the difference between experts and novices? |
experts only think aspects of problem that's important to its solution -> LOW cognitive load
novices see surface similarity - think about unimportant and important aspects -> HIGH cognitive load |
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memory of loci/memory palaces |
a memory method that uses visualization to organize and recall info
e.g. matching a string of numbers to a picture and memorizing the picture |
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A/P (articulary phonological) loop rehearsal |
in working memory, when you repeat something many times to remember it (e.g. a phone number) |
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how can we extend the A/P loop? |
CHUNKING! A/P loop has around 4 slots but you can chunk info so more things are stored in the 4 slots |
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Badderly's model of working memory storage/process |
A/P Loop -> Central Executive -> V-S Sketchpad |
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central executive |
coordinates process of working memory
controls both V-S sketchpad and A/P Loop |
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A/P Loop |
working memory for auditory sounds/language |
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Visual-Spatial Sketchpad |
working memory for visual space events |
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Kosslyn and Pylyshyn's imagery debate |
Kosslyn said your storage a visual memory looks a lot like how it looks in real life
Pylyshyn said that's only how they appear, not how they're stored
Kosslyn experiments: visualize elephant in distance, then visualize it closer - more brain area activated
Pylyshyn rebuttal: we don't know what the process the brain is doing, only the general area that's active |
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iconic memory |
persistent storage of visuals
e.g. brief flash of lighting, 1 sec stores entire visual field |
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echoic memory |
persistent storage of sound <5 sec |
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haptic memory |
persistent storage of touch |
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sensory memory |
buffers are iconic, echoic, haptic
limited processing
passes into short term memory by attention filtering |
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working memory |
faster access, rapid decay, limited capacity, can move into long-term
CHUNK info to extend working memory
FLUSH when finished with task |
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long term memory |
slower, virtually unlimited capacity (unknown), little decay |
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motor memory |
special case - motor programs/perception-action loops |
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PERCEPTION -> COGNITION -> MOTOR |
PERCEPTION - sensory
COGNITION - working memory - long term memory
MOTOR - motor memory |
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Norman's T stage model of mental representations |
Establish goal to be achieved Form intention for action to achieve goal Specify action sequence corresponding to intention Execute action sequence Perceive system state Interpret system state w/ respect to goal/intention |
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GOMS |
Goals - Operators - Methods - Selection
common method in industry interface for developing dynamic models
predicts length of operations and compares diff candidate methods
Card, Moran, Newell (1983)
G- goals user is trying to reach O- primitive operations assembled to find solution M- sequences of operators grouped to reach goal S- decide which method when several applicable |
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keystone level model (KLM) |
Card et al (1983)
predicts task execution times but not such a good job
needed something HIERARCHICAL |
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CMN (Card Moran Newell)-GOMS |
HIERARCHICAL KLM tasks organized as series of goals/subgoals operators organized info subroutines called methods more accurate execution times better view of task structure can model with SOAR/ACT-R
remember telephone example! |
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CPM-GOMS |
John (1990) realized CMN-GOMS needed parallel processing (thanks to telephone field test) |
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SYSTEM MODEL |
what designers see
built on lower level abstractions
details may be hidden even from implementors |
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MENTAL MODEL |
what users think they see
match mental to system model!!
or rely on user illusion |
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how to support building mental models? |
*user's own activity leads to building mental model*
user: ask someone for help watch them do it buy a book for dummies help screens |
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runnable model |
dynamic models includes notion of causality used for explanation to understand why system responded as it did used for prediction to select an appropriate action |
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common forms of mental models |
state transition model - changes in state need to be visible
object-action model
mapping model - users learn sequence of actions to accomplish tasks
analogies - new systems resemble old ones |
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errors that result from inadequate mental models |
failure to appreciate system's state during interpretation of perception stage
failure to select appropriate action
inadequate evaluation of resulting state
lack of intention to take recovery action |
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hiding system complexity |
many systems have many low-level details that users don't need to see
may not be relevant to user activity
this is why designers hide them like toolboxes in Ps |
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how to evaluate a mental model? |
use a cognitive walkthrough
look at user's process from planning to achieve a goal, to exploring system, to selecting an action for task, to interpreting system response and assess progress
look at user's mental model at each stage of interaction |
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JJ Gibson's take on mental models |
rejected info processing for affordances
interfaces not physical, so don't have affordances so it's called "perceived affordances"
this is like hamburger icon - it's arbitrary but we learned it as meaning menu |
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Stanford-Wechler IQ test |
tackles multiple areas of intelligence (visual, etc.) |
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Stanford-Binet IQ test |
measured standard IQ, weighted towards verbal tests
criticism: cultural, environment diff may change result |
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Flynn effect |
when generations do better at IQ tests cuz of better studying habits, better health, better technology |
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explicit knowledge |
something you know that you can recall at will |
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tacit knowledge |
something you know you know but can't really describe it in detail
e.g. how to drive |
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perceptual expertise |
e.g. experts can hear aspects of sound of one instrument in a band
experts learn to seamlessly combine automatic/controlled processes
can shift attention across levels |
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under what conditions do we learn the fastest? |
operation is task focused, simple, consistent vocab task focused, familiar, consistent risk is low |
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gulf of execution |
gap between what a tool user wants and the operation the tool provides
how to reduce the golf? e.g. speed dial! |
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object/action analysis |
conceptual model that explains functions of software and what concepts ppl need to be aware of in order to use it
all objects that app will expose to users, actions that users perform, attributes of each object, relationships between objects |
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keystroke consistency |
standardizing physical actions for all the activities of the same type |
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how is responsiveness measured? |
in terms of compliance with human time requirements and user satisfaction
DIFF than performance - system can be responsive despite low performance |
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what do responsive systems do? |
let you know immediately that input was received provide indication of how long operations will take anticipate your most common requests |
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what is poor responsiveness? |
delayed feedback for interaction
providing no clue how long length operations will take
time consuming ops that block other activity and cannot be aborted |
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what's the duration of unbroken attention to a single task? |
10 seconds
when ppl perform tasks, they break it down into subtasks
bottom lvl subtasks = unit tasks
software should support splitting up tasks into 10s |
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what's the maximum duration of silent gap between conversation? |
1 second
systems have 1 sec to either do what user asked or indicate how long it will take |
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perceptual learning |
brain's response to auditory info changes with your experience with that info
e.g. every time you listen to a song, you hear it diff cuz of your experience |
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implicit learning |
when we exhibit changes in behaviour without having intended to learn something |
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implicit memory |
when we exhibit changes in behaviour that reveal influence of past experience even though we're not attempting to use that experience |
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habituation |
when our response lessens with exposure |
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sensitization |
when our response increases with exposure |
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incidental learning |
learning without the intention to learn |
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transfer-appropriate processing |
memory better when test taps same type of knowledge as original encoding activity |
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how do we recognize a perceived face? |
stimulates activity in neurons in distinct patterns
diff faces stimulate diff patterns of neural response
if a face was perceived PREVIOUSLY, its corresponding neural pattern was already activated -> THIS IS RECOGNITION |
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what is recalling? |
long term memory reactivating old neural patterns WITHOUT immediate similar perceptual input (without seeing/perceiving it) |
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old brain |
brain stem, where spinal cord enters base of brain
regulates body's automatic functions |
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midbrain |
located above old brain and beneath cortex
controls emotions |
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new brain |
consists of cerebral cortex
controls intention, purpose, conscious activity |
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why is problem solving harder than learned actions? |
learned actions sometimes become semi or fully automatic -> you can do it without paying attention
problem solving/calculate are hard cuz controlled processing requires FOCUSED attention and constant conscious monitoring
problem solving executes SLOWLY/SERIALLY |
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3 stages in learning/memory process |
encoding - initial learning of info
storage - maintaining info over time
retrieval - ability to access info when you need it |
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engrams |
also called memory traces
we use them to reconstruct past events |
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retention interval |
time between learning and testing |
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retroactive interference |
activities that interfere with memories during retention interval |
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encoding specificity principle |
e.g. when a song is associated with a certain powerful memory and you remember that memory when you hear that song |
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when is a retrieval cue most effective? |
a match must exist between cue and desired target memory and cues should recreate the event or name to be easier retrieved |
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fluid intelligence |
ability to think on your feet (associated more with youth) |
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crystallized intelligence |
ability to use language, skills, experience to address problems
increases with age |
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Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences |
ppl process info thru diff channels with are independent from each other
8 common intelligences: logic math, visual spatial, music rhythm, verbal linguistic, bodily kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalistic |
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Emotional intelligence |
emphasizes experience and expression of emotion |
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what is "g" |
Spearman proposed the idea that intelligence was ONE thing, a general factor, "g" |
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Carroll's take on divided intelligence |
3 levels/strata descending from most abstract to most specific
highest lvl (stratum III) = "g"
stratum II - fluid intelligence, visual perception, etc.
stratum I - inductive reasoning, verbal comprehension, reaction time |
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projection |
way of seeing something extra in the thing present (augmenting observed thing) |
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difference between perception and projection |
perception - concerned with seeing what is present
projection - concerned with seeing what is not present but might be |
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when is projection most powerful? |
when coupled with materialization as in:
project structure -> materialize project -> project next |
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visual thinking |
IQ gains attributed to this (flynn effect)
visual thinking capabilities enable us to develop systems of GRAPHICAL COMMUNICATION |
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visual literacy |
visual thinking + graphical language |
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what does visualization thinking do? |
builds a language of collections of images that support thinking |
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what makes us more powerful thinkers? |
actively looking at external representations and projecting onto them |
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what did Colin Ware say about visual thinking algorithms? |
they describe dialogue between humans and computers, using simple pseudocode to support design decisions
KEY COMPONENTS: visual queries/epistemic actions |
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visual queries |
aspects of problem that have been transformed so progress towards a solution can be accomplished with visual pattern search
when you change a parts of a problem so you can solve it with visual pattern search
constrained by visual pattern perception/visual working memory capacity |
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epistemic actions |
activities like eye movements or mouse selections designed to gain more information |
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James Clerk Maxwell |
discovered laws of electrodynamics by visual thinking (trifocal curves) |
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generalizing sketching to interaction |
brain-body-stuff: can be distributed between internal process and external process or things |
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example of a distributed cognitive system |
single person operating with an instrument |
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distributed cognition |
cognition and knowledge aren't confined to an individual - they're distributed among objects, individuals, artefacts, and tools in the environment |
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Richard Feynman |
theoretical physicist
made diagrams about electrons |
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free body diagram (David Kirsh) |
sketch of a mechanical system cut free of its surroundings
shows all the external forces acting on the system, and requires disengaging each gear
remember gear diagram |
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thinking with objects (cards) (Kirsh) |
IN HEAD: scan, look at parts mentally group cards keep in mind plan in head
IN HEAD AND WORLD: scan follow sorting procedure perceive groups plan while looking
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Colin Ware 3 loops |
Outer loop - problem solving; includes finding candidates for visual problem solving
Middle loop - visual pattern search using eye movements
Inner loop - pattern testing |
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milliseconds matter |
changes in response time can shift problem solving strategies |
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what is the link between visual thinking/d-cog and interaction design? |
psychologists study the mind in order to find general theories about the mind
d-cog scholars tend to be interdisciplinary researchers often with philosophy bg - they challenge psychology model: if cognition distributed b/t world and mind, how can we ever build a general theory of mind?
DESIGNERS BUILD WORLDS TO THINK WITH |
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d-cog vs. info processing |
relationship in info processing is OPPOSITIONAL; d-cog = paradigm shift |
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d-cog includes... |
projecting (interaction of internal/external reps)
enactive cognition (attached action and environment) |
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enactive cognition |
attached/"close-coupling" action and environment |
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what is a precursor to enactive d-cog? |
ECOLOGICAL PERCEPTION!!! |
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ecological biosemiotics |
Ways of coloring: Comparative color vision as a case study for cognitive science
Neuroanatomical analysis of retinas finds patterns that are a function of behaviour, rather than the objective world -> birds specialized for flight |
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which perspective explains "no one could see the colour blue until modern times?" |
ecological perception (probs)
since ancient languages didn't have a name for "blue" and without a word for it, there's a chance they've never even seen it |
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what do human information processing mechanisms combine? |
sensory perception of natural/constructed world and graphical representations
internal representations about facts, experiences, procedures |
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Chase & Simon (1973) |
chess board
masters better at recalling actual game positions than random ones |
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why bother with external representations? |
Limits to memory, mental models
but even when models are simple, we prefer external representations (e.g. writing phone number down) |
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Biederman's mental math study |
perform basic operations
easier to see the operation symbol first, than the two numbers cuz recalling all the answers is slower
bottom up faster
COGNITIVE PROCESSING = display dependent |
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Blooms Taxonomy of Learning Objectives (1956) |
pyramid, from the bottom up:
knowledge -> comprehension -> application -> analysis -> synthesis -> evaluation |
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Perry Scheme |
model for understanding how uni students understand "what it means to know"
Lvl 1: Dualism - truth is black/white, absolute Authorities have the answers, I will learn them too.
Lvl 2: Multiplicity - differing options are allowed, but seen as temporary until "truth" is discovered Good Authorities give me problems that will show me how to find the Right Answer.
Lvl 3: Relativism - knowledge/values understood to be correct based on context The Authorities disagree, they are still working on getting the Right Answers.
Lvl 4: Commitment in Relativism Authorities are less interested in having me come up with a Right Answer, than in my learning to think in a certain way
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retrieval practice effect/testing effect (roediger) |
retrieving something multiple times makes it easier to retrieve |
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retrieval induced forgetting
(roediger) |
retrieval practice of something can cause you to forget other similar things
SO: retrieval practice can be a double edged sword |
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DRM effect (roediger) |
when you're asked to memorize "pane, curtains, etc." you memorize "window" too
cause: students encoded "window" cuz they saw things that were related to it |
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the puzzle thing |
external rep better than internal rep better in this case because you can rotate and move the physical pieces whereas you'd have to remember how you made moves in your head
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cost structures |
internal cost structure - internal processing
external cost structure - digital support can lower cost - operators outside may be diff than inside
coordinating cost - coordinating internal and external together |
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what is more cost-effective? external or internal reps? |
solving it in the world is more cost-effective
- more reliable - usually faster - less effortful - scales up better |
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what did Douglas Engelbart say about augmenting human intellect? |
augmenting man's intellect means increasing someone's capability to approach a complex problem, figure out how to suit his particular needs, and to find solutions
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HLAM/T system |
stands for Human using Language, Artifacts, Methodology, in which he is Trained
basic human capabilities for sensing stimuli, performing mental ops, and for communicating with the world, are put to work in our society within the HLAM/T system |
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what are Engelbart's main 6 concepts? |
Augmenting human intellect "collective IQ"
Improvement infrastructure
Co-evolution of artifacts with socio-cultural language-practices
knowledge workers
support structures for improving organization
Raising the competence of the designers, implementers |
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how to overcome cognitive bottlenecks? (3 steps) |
1. offload cognition to representations that can be manipulated, e.g. sketching, writing, math on paper etc.
2. try to "Close-couple” skilled human & responsive artifact e.g. music performance, games
3. distribute cognition across people e.g. coordinated firefighters, teams |
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what are the two systems of decision making? |
system 1: gut instinct, or insight at a glance
system 2: structured reasoning
Designers can use visualization to guide people to System 2
visual representation of information helps us to optimize our analysis and decision-making processes |
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"gamification" theory |
Outlined “man-computer symbiosis”
Licklider (1960) said that he hopes in the future, brains and computers will be coupled together very tightly and that the partnership will think as no human brain has ever thought and process data in a way not approached by the information-handling machines we know today |
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Principle of Embeddedness |
In closely coupled system, process and structure migrates to wherever costs are lowest - both epistemic and pragmatic costs (computational and physical) |
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diff between mentalism and functionalism? |
mentalism - people use mental representations for social phenomena/mental perception and thought processes
HOW PPL THINK ABOUT PEOPLE
functionalism - social cognitive processing serves a purpose -> explores the settings, goals, and activities of social cognition (background) |
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theory of mind |
The ability to understand others’ mental states: beliefs, desires, intentions
We use our mutual knowledge, mutual beliefs, mutual expectations, mutual assumptions to ground our interactions |
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internal attribution vs. external attribution |
attribution - explanation for the causes of events or behaviors
internal attribution - they're late because they're lazy
external attribution - they're late because traffic was bad |
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factors affecting attribution? |
Fundamental Attribution Error
self serving bias
belief in a just world - they get what they deserve, they did something to make something bad happen to them |
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What role do stereotypes play in our daily interactions? |
Stereotypes help us organize and understand people
BUT THIS CAN BE WRONG!
We forget or ignore information that does not fit our stereotypes |
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ingroups and outgroups |
Ingroup favoritism: you think your group is more diverse, more attractive, nicer, more socially acceptable
outgroup homogeneity effect: they're more similar |
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5 basic mechanisms in social cognition |
MASTI theory of mind mental models attributions stereotypes ingroup favouritism, outgroup homogeneity |
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3 ways cognition can be distributed? |
1. distribution across groups
2. distributed over inner/outer processes
3. culture organizes cognition |
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distributed across groups |
Group: Cognition can be distributed across members of a social group either co-present or over a distance
collectivist thinking -> group thinking
Group intelligence has: public and private goals, roles, timing, sharing information, transform information, emergent organizational structure |
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distributed over inner/outer processes |
Cognition can be distributed between internal process and external processes or things. e.g. between brain/mind processes and material tools in the environment
"brain body stuff"
agent-machine coupling -> tetris |
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how does culture organize cognition? |
Culture Shapes Everything: can be distributed across time with products of earlier events
cultural additions - transforming the nature of later events
knowledge is built into tools, environment design, representations, procedures and instruments
culture shapes the cognitive processes of systems; it's the infrastructure we live in
it’s a distributed organizing principle – with the past showing through (how things have been done driving how they are done now) |
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embodied/embedded/extended/enacted cognition? |
Embodied Cognition I (EC – I): Cognitive processes are partially dependent upon extracranial bodily processes
Embodied Cognition II (EC – II): Cognitive processes are partially constituted by extracranial bodily processes.
Embedded Cognition (EMC): Cognitive processes are partially dependent upon extrabodily processes.
Extended Cognition (EXC): Cognitive processes are partially constituted by extrabodily processes.
Enacted Cognition (ENC): Cognition is the relational process of sense-making that takes place between an autonomous system and its environment. |
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unit of analysis: the naval ship
(hutchins) |
knowledge/cognition to operate ship doesn't exist in only one person's head
many ppl involved, each with a PARTIAL VIEW
knowledge/cognition distributed across people, tools, communication
THIS IS INFO PROCESSING -> units are coordinated and create a system |
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starbucks as example of distributed cognition? |
their marking-the-cup idea minimizes costs in most areas and changes cognitive efficiency for whole system
cognitive artifact -> the cup |
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what are Hutchins' d-cog key points? |
"boundaries in the unit of analysis" of cognition
"the range of mechanisms" (cognitive artifacts) |
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what is mind? what does intelligence imply?
(hutchins) |
mind = the thing with knowledge
intelligence -> implies cognition and displayed in how robust, resilient, adaptable the system is in solving a hard problem |
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interaction is ___-sided |
interaction is TWO sided
we are in partnership with our environment e.g. tools and machines can take on the complexity of a person |
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d-cog in AI
deliberative architectures vs. reactive architectures |
deliberative: implements a domain study of existence - system has representation of the WORLD
reactive: low-lvl specification defines sensory-motor space; behaviour based systems - system has representation of BEHAVIOUR |
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what are Pfeifer and Scheier (2001)'s autonomous robot design principles? |
parallel loosely coupled processes
intelligence should come from sensory-motor coordination
cheap design with ecological niche
system must be redundant
system should be self organizated |
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swarm intelligence |
behaviour based principles:
1. each unit must think for itself 2. each unit acts on local info 3. no one unit is in charge |
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many of the process involved in music making are ____ |
tacit |
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Polanyi's structure of tacit knowledge (4 aspects) |
functional aspect phenomenal aspect semantic aspect ontological aspect |
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what is a particular? |
an individual item in contrast to a whole, a detail |
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socially distributed cognition |
shared tacit knowledge (enculturation, practice) context sharing info emerging organizational structure fundamental mechanisms of coordination |
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common ground (Clark, 1996) |
p is common ground for members of community C if and only if
1. every member of C has info that basis b holds 2. b indicates to every member of C that every member of C has info b holds 3. b indicates to members of C that p
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why is common ground useful? |
concept helps us identify fundamental mechanisms that underlie coordination |
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functional aspect of tacit knowledge |
we attend from particulars to wholes |
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phenomenal aspect of tacit knowledge |
we are aware of the particulars in the appearance of the whole |
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semantic aspect of tacit knowledge |
the particulars become meaningful by their relation to the whole |
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ontological aspect of tacit knowledge |
what the tacit knowing is a knowledge of |
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what is "thinking about" vs "thinking with" |
thinking about: mentalism - attribution - theory of mind - stereotypes
thinking with: functionalism - distributed cognition - joint attention - common ground
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cognitive system includes (3 things) |
scripts - sequences of tasks in which individuals with specific roles are trained
artifacts that support the task (technologically distributed cognition)
communication protocols and channels for communication |
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Minsky's society of mind |
constructing a mind is hard since the brain has taken millions of years to evolve
SO: construct a mind by synthesizing organizational systems that can work together and combine their abilities |
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cognitive impenetrability (Pylyshyn, 1984) |
refers to the inability of observers to use semantic information (such as what the person believes or intends to do) to influence the operation of the input stage
observers can't use semantic info to influence input operation |
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modularity of mind (Fodor, 1980) |
information is hidden (encapulated) in modules and cannot be shared |
