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194 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Translation |
Synthesis of a polypeptide using the information in the mRNA. |
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Promotor |
The DNA sequence where RNA polymerase attaches and initiates transcription |
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Template Strand |
The strand of DNA that is transcribed |
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Nucleotide |
Any amino acid base |
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RNA |
Ribose instead of deoxyribose Single Stranded |
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RNA Polymerase |
An Enzyme that pries the two strands of DNA apart and joins together RNA nucleotides complementary to the DNA template strand, thus elongating the RNA nucleotide |
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mRNA |
Messenger RNA serves as a faithful transcript of the gene's protein-building instructions |
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Codon |
mRNA nucleotide triplets that are written in the 5'-3' direction. |
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tRNA |
"Translator"; Transfers amino acids from the cytoplasmic pool of amino acids to a growing polypeptide in a ribosome. |
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aminoacyl tRNA synthetase |
20 differen synthetase. An enzyme that correctly matches up tRNA with the amino acid. Also catalyzes the attachment of the Amino acid to the tRNA |
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missense mutation |
A substitute that changes one amino acid to another. Has very little affect on protein. |
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anticodon |
At the opposite end of a tRNA molecule which has base pairs with the complementary codon in the mRNA. |
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amino acid |
Monomer of polypeptides |
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Polypeptides |
Polymers of amino acids. Product of translation |
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rRNA |
Along with a protein it makes up the subunits of a ribosome. |
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polyA tail (alteration of mRNA ends) |
During mRNA processing, at the 3' end an enzyme adds 50-250 more adenine nucleotides. |
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introns |
Intervening sequences that are noncoding segments of nucleic acid that lie between coding regions |
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exons |
Expressed through being translated into amino acid sequence. |
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Spliceosome |
snRNPS bind with several other proteins. It interacts with certain sites along an intron, releasing the intron, which rapidly degrades, and joining the two exons that flanked the intron. |
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Ribosome |
Made up of two subunits. One large one small. Where RNA synthesis takes place. |
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signal peptide |
Zipcode that decides that polypeptide destination |
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If a polypeptide has a ER Signal peptide |
Endomembrane system where translation is completed |
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Other places proteins can go |
Translation is finished in cytosol and then depending on the signal peptide it can either go to mitochondria, chloroplast, the interior of the nucleus, and other organelle. |
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Mutations |
Changes in nucleotide sequence that can either have a devastating or little impact depending on the magnitude of the change |
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Nucleotide |
Basic building block of DNA and RNA |
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Nucleotide pair subistitution |
the replacement of one nucleotide and it's partner with another pair of nucleotides |
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Nucleotide pair insertion |
Addition of a pair that causes a frameshift ultimately rendering the protein useless |
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Nucleotide pair deletion |
3 nucleotides removed cause a whole protein to missing. Either renders protein useless or causes defects |
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missense mutation |
When a substitution mutation causes one amino acid to be changed to another |
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Silent mutations |
When a change in a nucleotide doesnt end up affecting the final product. |
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Nonsense mutation |
When a nucleotide is substituted through mutation and a stop codon is created causing premature releasing and renders protein useless |
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ubiquitin |
Attaches itself to a protein that is marked for destruction. |
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Proteosome |
Degrades the defective protein into smaller peptides that can be broken up in the cytosol |
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The Cell Cycle |
The life of a cell from the time it is first former from a dividing parent cell until its own division into two daughter cells |
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Importance of Mitotic cell division |
Ability to produce more of own kind Allows eukaryotic multicellular organisms to come from a fertilized egg. Renewal, repair, replacing dying cells. |
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Interphase |
Grows and copies chromosomes consists of G1, S, G2 phases. G0 phase is a thing aswell |
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G1 phase |
Grows proteins and other organelle. |
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S phase |
DNA Synthesize. Longest phase of Mitotic cell division. |
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G2 phase |
More protein and organelle growing |
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Low frequency of division cells |
Would spend time in G1 or G0 relative. |
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Mitosis |
The reproduction of cells through splitting. Consists of prophase, metaphase, anaphase, and telophase/cytokinesis |
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G2 of interphase (mitotic) |
-Nuclear envelope encloses nucleus -two centrosomes created from 1 -Nucleus contains 1 or more nucleoli |
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Prophase (Mitotic) |
-Chromatin become more densly coild. Visible with light -Nucleoli dissapear -Early mitotic spindle. Microtubules polymerizing |
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Prometaphase |
-Nuclear envelope fragments -microtubules invade nuclear area -chromosomes condense more -Microtubules connect to kinetochore (Specialized protein at centromere) and jerk back and forth |
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Metaphase |
-Centrosomes at opposites ends of cell -Creation of Metaphase plate. Chromosomes align in the exact center of two centrosomes |
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Anaphase |
-Shortest stage -Each chromatid becomes full choromosome -seperase cleaves cohesion proteins -Kinetochores are reeled in by motors |
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Telophase |
-nuclear envelope arise from fragments of the parents cells previous one and portion of endomembrane -Nuceoli reappear, chromosomes decondense |
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Cytokinesis (Animal Cell) |
Involves the formation of a cleavage furrow pinching cells in half. Making cells seperate. |
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Cytokinesis (Plant Cells) |
New cell wall is constructed. Vesicles from the golgi apparatus are responsible. |
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Asexual reproduction |
Being able to reproduce without a mate |
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Chromosome |
The packing of DNA molecules |
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Chromatin |
The entire complex of DNA and proteins that is the building material of chromosomes |
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Chromatid |
one copy of a chromosome usually pair with a sister chromotid. |
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Sister Chromatids |
Joined copies of the original chromosome. |
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Centromere |
A region containing specific dna sequences where the two sister chromatids are attached closest |
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Centrosome |
A region containing material that function throughout cell cycle to organize microtubules (where mitotic spindle begins) |
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Kinetochore |
A structure of proteins associated with specific sections of chromosomal DNA at each centromere. Where microtubules attach during prometaphase |
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Cohesin |
Enzyme that holds sister chromatids together |
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Motor Proteins |
A motor protein pulls the chromosomes back down the microtubules towards centrosomes during anaphase. Uses atp and walks its way along |
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Microtubules |
Long tubular structures that in the case of mitosis create mitotic spindle |
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Microtubule organizing center |
Centrosome |
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Mitotic spindle
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Begins to form in the cytoplasm in prophase |
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Somatic Cells |
All cells except reproductive cells Each contain 46 chromosomes |
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Gametes |
Reproductive cells that have half as many chromosomes as a somatic cell. |
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Diploid |
Any cell with two chromosome sets Ex humans 2n=46 |
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Haploid cell |
Gamates contain a single set of chromosomes Ex humans n=23 |
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Cell Cycle Control System |
A cyclically operating set of molecules in the cell that both triggers and coordinates key events in the cell cycle |
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G1 Checkpoint |
In mammalian cells dubbed restriction point. If a cell gets the go ahead at G1 it usually compleates the rest of the phases |
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G0 phase |
If it doesnt pass G1 checkpoint exits cycle and goes into nondiving state (Muscle and nerve cells) |
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Cyclin |
Activate kinases |
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Kinases |
(Give go ahead for G1 and G2 checkpoints) |
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Cyclin-dependant kinases |
Acitivity rises and falls with changes in the concentration of its cyclin partner. Highest during S and G2 phase but drops during M phase |
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MPF/Maturation-promoting factor |
Gives go ahead from G2 into M phase |
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Growth Factor |
A protein released by certain cells that stimulates other cells to divide.
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Density-dependent inhibition |
Proof that external physical factors effect cell division. Says that once cells become too crowded they stop dividing. if a cell dies they fill its place. |
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Anchorage dependence |
To divide they must be attached to a substratum, such as the inside of a culture jar or the extracellular matrix. |
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Cancer Cells |
Cells taht do not heed the normal signals that regulate the cell cycle. They divide execessively and abundantly invading other tissues |
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Benign Tumor |
When abnormal cells remain at the original site if they have too few genetic and cellular changes to survive in another site |
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Malignant tumor |
Cells whose genetic and cellular changes enable them to spread to new tissues and impair the functions of one or more organs. (Cancer) |
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Metastisis |
When cancer cells spread to distant locations from original cell site |
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Normal Cell Division Reception |
The target cells detection of a signaling molecule coming from outsie the cell. A chemical signal is detected when bound to receptor at cell surface |
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Normal Cell Division Transduction |
The binding of the signaling molecule changes the receptor protein in some way, initiating transduction. This stage converts signal to a form that can bring specific cellular response |
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Normal Cell Division Response |
Specific cellular response is triggered. |
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Prooto-oncogenes |
Code for proteins that stimulate normal cell growth and division |
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Oncogenes |
Cancer causing gene. |
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Proto-Oncogene --> Oncogene |
Genetic change that leads to an increase either in the amount of the proto-oncogenes protein product or in the intrinsic activity of each protein molecule |
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Genetic change that cause Cancer (Point Mutation) |
Point mutations happens that either in:
-Promoter or an enhancer that controls a proto-oncogene, causing an increase in its expression -The coding sequence, changes the gene's product to a protein that is more active and resistant to degradation than a normal protein. |
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Genetic change that cause cancer (Amplification her2 example) |
An increase in the number of copies of the proto-oncogene in the cell through repeated gene duplication. (Chapter 21) |
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Tumor-supressor genes |
Cells whose normal products inhibit cell division |
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BRCA2 and genetic testing |
Helps repairs breaks that occur in both strands of DNA; One can test BRCA2 for mutations to see risk of breast cancer |
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p53 |
"guardian angel of the genome" Tumor supressor that once oncogenes are activitated this begins transcription of the synthesis of cell cycle-inhibiting proteins. |
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Cell- Cycle stimulating pathway |
If RAS is mutated, issues signals on its own, it cause over stimulationg of cell cycle |
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Cell-cycle inhibiting pathways |
p53 has a missing trasncription factor and it cannot acitvate transcription of cell inhibiting proteins. |
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Methylation |
Methylaytion causes a gene to be shut off. |
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Telomerase |
Adds telomeres to the end of DNA so that it prevents immortality of cells by number the times a cell can divide. |
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Antisensing technology |
Inhibits gene expression |
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Multistep model of cancer development |
1.Loss of tumor-suppressor gene 2.Activation of mutated RAS 3.Loss of tumor supressor gene DCC 4.Loss of tumor supressor gene p53 5.Additional mutations |
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Chemotherapy |
releases a molecule in blood that blocks the function of specific proteins. Mostly kinase proteins causing false checkpoint passes.(HER2 and tamoxifen for ERS for breast cancer) |
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Gametes |
The vehicles that transmit genes from one generation to the next. Created through meiosis |
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Fertilization |
When a female's gamete and a male's gamete join sharing DNA from each. Diploid cell |
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Human life Cycle |
Formation of haploid gametes(meiosis) Fertilization Growth and development (mitosis) Repeat |
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Karotype |
Order of longest chromosome pair to shortest chromosome pair |
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Homologous Chromosomes |
Two chromosomes composing a pair have the same length, centromere position, and staining patern |
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sex chromosomes |
XX female XY male |
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Autosomes |
Every chromosome that is not sex chromosomes |
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Prophase I |
-Chromosomes condense & homologs loosly pair -Homologs connect through synaptonemal complex. Connect along long side -Crossing over |
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Prophase I: Crossing over |
A genetic rearrangement b/w non sister chromatids involving exchange of corresponding DNA molecules |
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Prophase I: Chiasmata |
Homologous pairs have this X shaped region. Where crossover took place . |
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Late Prophase I |
Spindle formation and break down of nuclear envelop. |
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Metaphase I |
-Pairs of homologous chromosomes are now arranged at the metaphase plate -Chromatids of one homolog are attached to kinetochore microtubules from one pole. While the other is attached to opposite pole. |
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Anaphase I |
-Breakdown of coheision along chomatid arms allows homologs to seperate -homologs move towards opposite poles - |
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Telophase I |
-Each half cell has complete haploid set of duplicated chromosomes. One or both contain region of non sister chromatin. -Cytokinesis happens simultaneously w/ telephase I forming two daughter haploid cells. |
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Prophase II |
-Spindle apparatus begins to form. |
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Metaphase II |
-Chromosomes position at the metaphase plate -Sister chromatids are not identical -Kinetochores are attached to microtubules |
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Anaphase II |
Break down of proteins holding the sister chromatids together at the centromere allows them to seperate |
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Telephase II and Cytokinesis |
Nuclei form and chromosomes begin decondensing 4 haploid daughter cells are created Genetically distinct |
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Genetic variation |
Independent assortment of chromosomes, Crossing over, and random fertilizations |
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Independent Assortment of Chromosomes (Genetic Variations) |
It is a 50 50 chance that a particular daughter cell of meiosis 1 will get maternal or paternal chromosome of a homologous pair. 2^n is the equation for number of assortments |
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Crossing Over (Genetic Variation) |
B/C crossing over produces recombinant chromosomes, individuals carry genes derived from two different parents. |
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Random Fertilization (Genetic Variation) |
With 2^23 possible chromosome combination in one. When fertilization happens they are multiplied by each other (Ex 2^23*2^23) |
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Nondisjunction |
Members of a pair of homologous chromosomes do not move apart properly during meiosis I or sister chromatids fail to seperate during meiosis II. |
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Trisomy 21 |
When nondisjunction happens and there will be 3 copies of Chromosome 21. Causes Down syndrome. |
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Garden Pea as a model organism |
-Large variety -short generation time -large # of offspring |
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Law of Segregations |
The two alleles for a heritable character segregate during gamet formation and end up in different gametes |
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Genotype |
PP, pp, Pp, pP They can be different yet show the same phenotype |
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Phenotype |
Visible trait of an animal |
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Law of Independant Assortment |
Alleles for one gene are sorted into gametes independantly of the alleles of other genes |
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Monohybrid Cross |
Cross between two heterozygotes or homozygotes with one trait |
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Dihybrid cross |
Crossing two dihybrid species. two traits |
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When events are independepent
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multiply |
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When they are mutually exclusive |
add |
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Incomplete Dominance |
When crossing two things you see 2 results as a mixture of two phenotypes |
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Complete dominance |
One allele is prevalant |
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CoDominance |
Two alleles affect the phenotype in seperate, but distinguishable ways. |
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Multiple Alleles |
When more than one allele combination can create the same phenotype |
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Pleotropy |
The fact the genes can affect many different phenotypes |
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Inheritance of dominant traits |
Dominant allele diseases are less common because they are deadly therefore they rarely get passed on |
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Inheritance of Recessive Traits |
Are more easily passed on because they can lay dormant between generations |
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Sex Linked genes |
Male Y chromosomes have less diseases linked to them so. X linked diseases are more common so guys get screwed |
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Amniocentesis |
Technique in fetal testing |
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Fermentation |
Catabolic process that is the partial degradation of sugars or other organic fuels w/o oxygen |
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Aerobic respiration |
Oxygen is consumed as a reactant along with organic fuel. |
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Redox rxn |
Oxidation -loss of an proton reduction- Gaining of a proton |
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Glycolysis |
Occurs in cytosol. Breaks down glucose to 3 carbon sugars then oxidized them to pyruvate. Give 4 ATP and 2 NADH +2H aswell as 2 pyruvate molecules |
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Pyruvate processing |
In mitochondris 1. pyruvate carboxyl group which is already oxidized is eliminated. 2.Remaining two carbon fragment is oxidized forming acetate 3.Coenzyme A is then attached to acetate forming acetyl COA which is Has great EP |
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Citric Acid Cycle |
Pg 171 for steps -1 atp per turn is created. -Most chemical energy is transfered to NAD+ -Coenzymes NADH And FADH2 shuttle high e--energy electron into the electron transport chain Makes no ATP directly just eases fall of electrons |
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Electron transport chain |
Proteins 1-6 Each step releases a H+ ion which build up to create the H+ gradient for chemiosmosis |
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Complex 1 |
flavoprotein |
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complex 2 |
iron-sulfur protein |
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Q |
ubiqunue |
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Chemiosmosis |
ATP Synthase allows H+ ions to flow back down there concentration gradient and it harnesses the power motive force and phosphorylates ADP to ATP |
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Alcohol Fermentation |
pyruvate is converted to ethanol in two steps. 1. releases carbon dioxide from the pyruvate; which ic converted to the two carbon compound acetaldehyd. 2.Acetaldehyd is reduced to by NADH to ethanol. (This replenishes NAD+ for glycolysis) |
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Lactic Acid Fermentation |
Pyruvate is reduced directly by NADH to form lactate as an end product, with no release of CO2 |
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Obligate Anaerobes |
carry out only fermentation or anaerobic respiration |
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Facultative |
yeasts and many bacteria can make enough ATP to survive using either fermentation or respiration (Muscle cells) |
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Versatility of Catabolism |
Cellular respiration can use fats, proteins, dissacharides, and polysacharides |
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Beta Oxidation |
break fatty acids down to two-carbon fraements, which enter citric acid cycle as acetyl CoA NADH & FADH2 are also products |
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Biosynthesis |
Waste of glycolysis and citric acid cycle can be used in anabolic pathways. |
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Regulation of Cellular Respirations |
Basic & Supply demand |
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Phosphofructokinase |
Pacemaker for Cellular Respiration |
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Exchange in Simple-celled organisms |
Simple diffusion |
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Simple animals |
Direct exchange b/w enviroment. Gastrovascular cavity in cnidarian Shape -thin and flat -very few cell layers -live in moist enviroment |
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Complex animals |
Specialized exchange surfaces |
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Characteristics of specialized exchange surface |
-Internal or external -large surface area Folds and branching reduce small SA to Volume ratio) -connected to circulatory system - thin layer of epithelial cells -Moist (Interstitial fluid) |
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Mechanical vs Chemical digestion |
Mechanical increases surface area for hydrolytic enzymes to chemical digest or break bonds
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Salivary Glands |
Secrete enzymes in saliva that break down begin the digestion of salivary amylase which breaks down starch |
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Mucus |
Lubricates food and protects stomach from self digestion. |
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Peristalsis |
Contraction of muscles that pushes food through digestive tract |
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Mechanical Digestion in stomach
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Churning/peristalsis |
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Chemical Digestion in stomach |
Gastric juice Hcl- pH 2 |
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Gastric Juice |
Digests proteins |
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Hcl in stomach |
-Kills bacteria -denatures proteins -activates protease (pepsin) which is a digestive enzyme |
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Digestion in Small Intestine (Proteins and carbohydrates) |
Pancreas secreates Motrypsin and trypsin, proteases in duodenum but only activated when safely in lumen |
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Digestion in Small Intestine (Fats) |
Bile created in the liver and stored in the gallbladder help aid the digestion of lipids. |
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Absorption in the Small intestine (Carbohydrates and amino acids) |
In some cases simple diffusion down gradient across epithelial layer but in most it is pumped across. It is then brought into blood stream by capillaries of villi. Then goes to liver where it is filtered and then sent out in the blood stream |
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Absoprtion in Small Intestine (Fat/lipids) |
1.Lipase breaks fat into its constituents and they diffuse across epithelial cell layer 2. reform into triglycerides and some are diffused right away 3. others are attachted to a phospholipid, cholesteral, or proteins. 4. lacteal transports to the lymphatic system then it joins blood |
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Chylomicrons |
Triglycerides coated with phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins. Happens in fat digestion |
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Absorption in Large intestine |
Colon, Cecum, appendix, rectum |
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Colon |
Main job is water absorption |
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Cecum |
Fermenting plant material in herbavores |
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Appendix |
extension of the cecum that plays a despensable role in immunity |
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Feces |
waste of digestive system |
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Rectum |
Where feces are stored till they can be eliminated. |
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Ruminants |
Deer, sheep, and cattle that have had elaborate adaption for an herbivorous diet |
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Evolutionary change of Small Intestine |
Shorter in carnivores than herbivores |
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Dentition |
Evolutionary change in shape and size of teeth |
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Endocrine System |
Hormone system ment for gradual changes Slow |
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Nervous System |
Nerve impusles. Quick and fast ment for reaction |
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Negative Feedback |
Reduces stimulus |
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Glucose Homeostasis |
Insulin and glucagon tightly regulate the synthesis and breakdown of glycogen |
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Glucose transporter |
Wide group of membrane proteins that facilitate the transport of glucose over a plasma membrane |
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Diabetes |
A deficiency of insulin or a decreased response to insulin in target tissues. Blood glucose levels rise but cells are unable to take up enough glucose to meet metabolic needs. |
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Gills |
Through counter- current exchange water runs over the external gill and capillaries pick up O2 and dump CO2 |
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Tracheal system |
Air tubes that branch throughout body. insects
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