Eco Final

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Ecology

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the science of the interactions between organisms and their environment, both biotic and abiotic

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Ecosystem

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the principal unit of ecological study. all biotic and abiotic material in an area

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Ecotone

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area of overlap between 2 ecosystems. often contains species from both ecosystems.

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Ecological (Eltonian) Pyramids

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-biomass pyramid (avg. mass of trophic levels)

-number of individuals

-energy pyramid

-aquatic biomass (v. small T1, v. large T2)

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Energy Flow

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only ~10% of available energy is passed on to the next trophic level

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carbon cycle

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Evolution

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A change in gene frequencies; a gradual process in which something changes

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Darwin

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chief naturalist of HMS Beagle expedition to the Galapagos (1831-1836)

wrote On The Origin of Species (1859)

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Theory of Evolution via Natural Selection

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1. All species have a high reproductive potential

2. there are limited resources/space (competition & other mortality factors)

3. there is heritable variation within a population

4. differential survival, differential reproduction

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Stabilizing Selection

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(natural selection) selection against the extremes of the population curve

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Directional selection

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Selection against one side and for the other side of the population curve

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Disruptive selection

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selection for the extremes, against the middle of the population curve

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Speciation

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how new species are formed- micro/macroevolution

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Allopatric speciation

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occurs in different locations.

1. population, location split

2. no gene flow across barrier

3. separate populations slowly evolve until they can't reproduce with each other

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Reproductive Isolating Mechanisms

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behavioral (mating dances, etc)

mechanical (parts don't work)

temporal (season doesn't match)

chemical (levo/dextro, etc)

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Founder Effect speciation

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one fertilized female, or few individuals, colonize a new habitat and develop into a new species (darwin's finches)

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Sympatric speciation

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occurs in the same location.

-Hopeful Monster theory (willis) of major mutation

-polyploidy (plants)

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Parapatric speciation

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speciation on the edge of a species range. least recognized from of speciation

starts with a major mutation (regulatory genes?)

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Syngameon

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Lenz, irises. the sum total of species or semispecies genetically linked by hybridization

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Character Displacement

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Brown & Wilson. evolved divergence due to interspecific competition

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Lack research

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Darwin's finches, observing character displacement

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Wilson research

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Lasius ants, evolved divergence between eastern & western populations

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Population growth

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quantifying a population through time. mostly sigmoidal/s-shaped

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Carrying capacity

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number of individuals that can be supported by available food & resources

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Equation for population growth

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(dN/dt) = (rN(k-N)/k

k: carrying capacity

d: derivative

N: population (numbers)

t: time

r: (basically just use 1)

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Density Dependent population regulation

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regulatory factors that cause an increase in % mortality with an increase in population density

few populations ever reach high enough density to be affected by dens. dep. factors

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Density Independent population regulation

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% mortality doesn't change with population density

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Embree research

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Operopthera brumata (winter moth), Cyzenis (parasitic fly). moth populations plummeted when cyzenis population caught up

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Kroll & Fleet research

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pine beetles, woodpeckers. beetle populations 7-25x higher when woodpeckers absent.

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Hassel's Literature Review

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attempted to determine key factor in population regulation. almost every study failed to find natural enemies to be key factors (biggest contributors weather, resources)

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Randall research

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Coleophora (case-bearing moths)

how regulatory factors vary spatially (latitude) and temporally.

higher elevation: cold T°, resource regulation

mid elevation: competition regulation

lower elevation: parasitoid regulation

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Predation

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1.5 bbp- first predatory cells, natural selection now evolves for predators as well as abiotic factors

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Predator

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an individual that kills and consumes many other individuals. (carnivorous plants are predators, parasites are not)

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Predation Questions

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1. how important is predation to the population of the predator?

2. how important is predation to the population of the prey?

3. in terms of adaptations, what are the evolutionary consequences to both prey and predator?

4. how important is predation to ecosystem structure?

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Lotka and Volterra

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came up with equations based on those for population growth. graph is simple sine curve

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Gause research

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paramecium (prey) and didinium (pred.). attempted to test out lotka & volterra equations. concluded that predators have a drastic local effect on prey populations.

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Kaibab plateau

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predator wipeout caused deer population explosion, ecosystem destruction. introduction of human hunting keeps system regulated.

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Errington

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wipeoutbof muscrat predators had no effect on muscrat population due to territoriality of muscrats. predators feed exclusively on doomed surplus, population limited by number of territories

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Huffaker compromise

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impact of predators on prey population depends on:

1. environment complexity

2. efficiency of predators

3. ability of prey to hide

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Isle Royal

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wolf wipeout cause moose population explosion. moose begin to starve, frozen lake reintroduced wolves (walked across) and fixed overpopulation

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Paine research

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Pisaster starfish increase biodiversity by keeping mussels and barnacles out of the lower intertidal zone. areas w/o Pisaster, m&b outcompete other species

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Tree masting & predation

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predator satiation (feast or famine). no seed production for a number of years, extreme overproduction in one season, no seed production (cyclical)

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Holling research

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increase in prey density effect on predator density. small mammal predation on pine sawflies

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Greenbank hypothesis

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climatic release. insect outbreaks (spruce budworm in balsam for stands) following warm dry weather. high T° directly affect insect survival & reproduction, increase plant quality (for herbivores)

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White hypothesis

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plant stress most important factor in predicting insect eruptions. estimated by summer rainfall & contrastimg winter/summer precipitation. studied Psyllids (cardiaspina densitexta), lerp insect eruption

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Problems with Plant Stress

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1914-1922: major insect outbreaks during no water stress period

never took measurements of stress

no link between stress & effect on individual insects

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Feeny research

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winter moth & english oak. as oak leaves age, quality decreases for moth. moths have evolved to hatch very early, sometimes when no available food- v. high mortality

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Plant Apparency

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Feeny (2). type & amount of chemical defenses in a pla t species depends on how easy it is for herbivores to find the plants in both space & time. easier to find = more defenses. oaks vs. mustards.

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Quantitative plant defenses

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tannins & similar. at least somewhat effective on all insects, found in apparent plants.

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Qualitative plant defensive

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mustard oils & similar. small amounts work extremely well on all species except specialists. found in nonapparent plants.

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Resource availability hypothesis

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Coley, tropical trees in panama. pioneer species (nonapparent) vs. persistant species (apparent). pioneer species grow in foliage gaps, less available nutrients + short-lived = less chemical defenses. persistant sp. opposite

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Plant vigor hypothesis

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Price, galling insects on willow shrubs. many herbivores select and usually survive better on younger, rapidly growing plants & plant parts. more nitrates, less digestibility reducers.

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Induced defenses

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defenses that are produced in a plant soon after an herbivore attack; temporary defenses. less energy-costly than constitutive defenses to make/maintain

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Standfuss

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1896, butterflies. reared butterfly larvae on the same trees; over years, lower survival, less healthy, smaller larvae. attack by herbivores, decreasing plant quality. active self-defense in plants.

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Green and Ryan research

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proteinase inhibitor in tomato & potato plants, induced via mechanical destruction. more wounds, more inhibitor. first really good study re:induced defenses

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Benz research

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larch defoliation, larch budmoth. 4 inductions: defoliated trees = smaller needles, higher fiber content, less nitrogen, covered in layer of oleoresins. caused higher mortality, lower fecundity in larvae.

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Karban research

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father of induced defenses. explored mite-induced defenses on mites, mite-induced defenses on fungal pathogens, fungal-induced defenses on mites. concluded defenses are generalized.

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3-level trophic interaction

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Parasitoid, herbivore, plant. plant emits chemical signal to attract parasitoid upon herbivory

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Monteith research

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1955(?), earliest 3-level T.I. research. tenthredinid sawfly. food plants release an olfactory cue that attracts tachinid parasitoids

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Arthur research

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parasitism of european pine shoot moth by itoplectus parasitoid.

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Weis & Abrahamson research

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parasitic wasp (eurytoma), galling fly, goldenrod (solidago). smaller galls = more success, therefore eurytoma produces 2 different selective pressures:

1. larger galls (pressure on gallmaker)

2. smaller galls (pressure on goldenrod)

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Farmer research

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corn, beet army caterpillars, cotesia(parasitic wasp). caterpillar causes terpenoid production, attracting cotesia. caterpillar herbivory triggers terpenoid production via volicitin. (coevolutionary race)

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Coevolution

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mutually induced evolutionary change between 2 or more species or populations. reciprocal (1-on-1) and/or diffuse

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Batesian mimicry

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mimic-model system. mimic superficially resembles the model (dangerous, distasteful). viceroy:monarch butterflies

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Aggressive mimicry

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predators use mimicry to avoid being detected by their prey. zone-tailed hawk resembling the turkey vulture, photuris versicolor imitating flashes of female fireflies

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Janzen research

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bullshorn acacia, ants. ants live in acacia thorns in the tropics, receive food, acacia gets defenses, competition destruction, seed dispersal. without ants, most trees died

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Obligate mutualism

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pronuba moth & yucca- neither can live without the other. moth lays egg in yucca ovary, pollinates yucca (only pollinator).

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Seed dispersal complexes (Temple)

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Calvaria tree and dodo bird. seed dispersal organism went extinct, seed had no way to germinate bc of its thick seed coats. Temple broke down seed coats, introduced turkeys, filed down seed coats manually

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Frederick Clements

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father of community ecology. described lots of natural communities in terms of species kinds, likened communities to superorganisms. distributions due to climate, soil, topography, etc.