Cross Cultural Psychology

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Cultural Syndrom:

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 A shared pattern of beliefs, norms, rules, roles all of which are organized around a cultural theme
i.e. Individualism in America vs Collectivism in Asia
i.e. Tightness (a straight system of norms and standards of conduct; the rules are clear and you cannot deviate) vs Looseness (flexibility; more options of roles)
i.e. complexity  many institutions, organizations and pathways to pursue vs

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Ethnocentrism:

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 people tend to judge other people using values of their own culture
 it is learned unconsciously and it is not easily changeable
 contributes to a strong sense of self/self identity and group identification

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5 Elements/Ideas/Values of Subjective Culture:
Human nature

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– how do people define it in different cultures?
It is imperfect – concept of sin and cleansing/pathways to god
Eastern religions – believes human nature is good

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5 Elements/Ideas/Values of Subjective Culture:Relationship with nature

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“Nature is materialistic and should therefore be exploited for the benefit of society”
Let’s not do that – it negatively effects all of us.
Nature is alive and therefore should not be disturbed; we should live in harmony with nature instead of controlling it, exploiting it (Japanese culture)

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5 Elements/Ideas/Values of Subjective Culture:Social relationships/Interpersonal relationships

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In individualist cultures, relationships not intended for lifelong, are few, balance guided by each individuals own goals as well as collective goals – view social relationships as cost and rewards
In collectivistic societies, they are based on lifelong commitments, are stable and reciprocal; governed by a

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5 Elements/Ideas/Values of Subjective Culture:Nature of work/human activities

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Doing = preferred mode of activity in individualist cultures; work and pursuing dif professions is valued and respected (language is filled with this “what ya doin”
Being; Being in becoming = preferred mode in collectivistic cultures; being = experiencing and enjoying the company of other cultures
A state in which a person feels a person has put a good deal of time into solidifying personal ties and bonds

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5 Elements/Ideas/Values of Subjective Culture:Time

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Individualism oriented – romanticize the future, it will be better… we must plan for it!
Live in
Collectivistic societies – romanticize the past

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Clyde Klukluckhohn and his wife

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spent all their life studying native American peoples and their cultures

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Connotative Meanings

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affective, learned, acquired by people as they go through the process of acculturation and socialization in their own culture in society
They change from context to context, time to time
Differ from culture to culture; differ from individual to individual
Differ in intensity that people hold these connotative meanings; they are emotional
Tolerance vs lose ability to think rationally – they overpower people’s emotions and behaviors
Create gaps and misunderstandings and tensions
 Connotative meanings for everything! Just depends on the intensity with which you feel them
Examples: concept of being gay, straight; African americans, whites; days of the week

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Charles Osgood

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started study of connotative meanings

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Masculinity Oriented Cultures

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a cultural syndrome; masculinity oriented cultures – place greater value on activities that are more desirable for men (and vice versa)
Hoffsted: Ranked top masculinity oriented cultures – Japan #1; Latin American cultures ranked very high; America is somewhere in the middle

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Power Distance

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the degree of distribution of authority, power, and influence in a given social system; degree of separation between people in the upper ranks of society and those in the middle and lower ranks
Tells us whether a society has developed roles and role behaviors in which people have greater access and greater personal influence, authority and power compared to those where the power rests on only a few individuals in upper ranks of social system

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Ringi

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a consulting process designed to minimize the power distance and seek consensus from group as a whole; lower the distance between the lower and upper ranks
Power distance much greater in dictatorial or totalitarian systems

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Uncertainty Avoidance

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avoidance of situation where the rules, laws, and the outcomes are unclear/unpredictable
Collectivist cultures would have biggest problem with this! They are used to having a set way, clear rules – experience high levels of uncertainty avoidance!!

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Concept of face

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governs almost aspect of interpersonal life in a society like China

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Korean Culture- “Nunchi”

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the use of eye contact as the primart means to express your intention and our feelings; also to understand the intenions an feelings of others
Distinguish between respect and disrespect; trust or not; etc
It is intuitive yet sensitive to feelings and motives of others

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Mexican Interpersonal Roles and Values:Confianza

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establishing, maintaining, and strengthening trust between you and members of group; ability to reciprocate; harmony; Saving Face – do not say negative things about persons your related to; communicate indirectly

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Simpatía Mexican interpersonal roles and values

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providing emotional support and self sacrifice for group; cooperation with others; positive feedback; commitment to harmony/harmonious relationships

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Estabilidad: Mexican interpersonal roles and values

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need for stable, interpersonal, longterm, interconnected, networks of relationships; sometimes give preference to family members in work

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Palanza: Mexican interpersonal roles and values

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using your affiliations, connections to gain personal benefits, influence, and power; people don’t mind asking for or giving special favors

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Manana: Mexican interpersonal roles and values

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concept of time as not fixed, but as flexible – always negotiable. Valued for maintaining and strengthening interpersonal ties.

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German v American Culture in workplace:

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Americans have a tremendous need to be liked by others; German’s priority is on formality, order, strict adherence of the rules of the organization

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German v American Culture in workplace:

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American put a great deal of emphasis on achievement – promotions are based on achievement; Germans put a great emphasis on education and credentials are the underlying reasons for promotions

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German v American Culture in workplace:

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American want fair play; Germans have hierarchel, status-based treatment of people

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German v American Culture in workplace:

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American work place is more impersonal; American assume their own interests and goals; Germans develop a sense of identity with the organization and position, more personal

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German v American Culture in workplace:

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Americans tend to engage in conversations that primarily focus on sports, pop culture, weathers, etc, little about history, politics, art; Germans tend to engage in conversations primarily from a greater intellectual premise (history, politics, economics)

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Co Cultures:

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Cultural diversity can be studied through co cultures:
Examples:
Mexican American
Italian American
It is subcultures that exist within larger cultures.
They interact with the larger culture and are a part of it.
Our culture is now more diverse then it ever has been before.
The change is constant
Contributions of various social movements have contributed to a more perfect society: the ultimate goal of a perfect society
Women’s rights
African American rights
Gay Rights
Etc.

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Specific Stereotypes:

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African Americans:
Male: Most are negative stereotypes
Black men are violent
Engage more in criminal or antisocial behavior
Sexual behavior:
More sexual then other men in other ethnic groups
Incompetent
Uneducated
Negative attributes:
Drug addition
Teenage pregnancy
Unemployed
Poverty
Welfare
Food stamps

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Results of stereotypes

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More likely to be subjects of profiling
More likely to be expected to fail
Less likely to be hired for jobs
Less likely to be trusted with tasks

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Five Paradigms or Approaches of dealing with Cultural Diversity within American Society:
Eurocentric Approach a.k.a Eurocentric racism

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All Institutions of culture, economics, politics work to be based on White Anglo Saxon protestant values.
English will be the language
Non European groups would not be accepted AT ALL!
WASPS:
Discriminated against anyone who wasn’t a WASP
All peoples who were brought here were discriminated:
Asians: brought as laborers
Africans: Brought as slaves
Before 1966: No non Europeans were allowed to emigrate to the United States

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Five Paradigms or Approaches of dealing with Cultural Diversity within American Society:Melting Pot Approach:

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Would be treated with quality was the original idea but in reality thought societal values the individual groups were told to assimilate into “American Culture” It was also assumed that cultural ties to previous cultures or previous societies were not to be considered important. The assimilation work would be voluntary.

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Five Paradigms or Approaches of dealing with Cultural Diversity within American Society:Ethnic Nationalism:

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Seen in many countries around the globe today. “If we are not given equal rights and treated with Equality then we should create a nation” Each ethnic group should maintain its individual traditions and customs and it should serve a source of identity for those peoples. English will still serve as the language but the emphasis was still on maintaining cultural and ethnic individualism. The most relevant example is the African Americans in the 1960s who embraced this movement. IT didn’t succeed, all the Swahili schools have closed and the dress styles didn’t last. The option was not a realistic one.

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Five Paradigms or Approaches of dealing with Cultural Diversity within American Society:Centered Pluralism or Pluralistic cultural approach:

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Based on diversity: therefore our society accepts the concept of multicultural character in all aspects of our society. Economic, political, social, ect. Core American values “pursuit…of happiness, ect” still exisit. English will remain the language. Young people will be exposed to different literacy: basic understanding of other cultures contributions to society

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Five Paradigms or Approaches of dealing with Cultural Diversity within American Society:Globalism or One World Approach to culture:

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“I’m a citizen of the world” The united nations is a proponent of this idea though they wield no real power. One planet earth and only one planet earth, and therefore it is designed to foster greater economic, ecological, political interconnectedness among all cultures. All of us will have a larger sense of self identity, and will integrate all social, , economic aspects of a society. No country should own all resources on planet.


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Achievement:
Self Awareness

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How can African American adults men achieve personal and collective goals?
Idea of community, inclusion, validation very important by the entire community
More positive, healthy, strong identity
Emphasize interdepenedence – emphasis on a balanced approach to both individualism and collectivism

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Prejudice:

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Controlled (weigh evidence, look at all dif sides, thoughtful, critical, rational, reasonable) and automatic (based on stereoytpes, prejudice; based on preconceived notions; quick reaction with little or no thought) information processing

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Functions of prejudice
Utilitarian

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people become prejudice because it leads them or makes them pursue various rewards in their society; leads them to avoid some social cusps; people hold a prejudice because in some way gives them rewards and avoids some social costs

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Functions of prejudice
Ego-defensive

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people don’t want to acknowledge they are prejudice, instead, they blame others

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Functions of prejudice
Value Expressive Function of Prejudice

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guided by the desire to express and uphold the values that one group has that they believe are correct/superior, and therefore everyone else should follow these same moral values

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Functions of prejudice
System of categorization

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which prejudice is based helps them collect knowledge about the group that they are prejudice against

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Functions of prejudice
Intense Racism

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a clear separation between in group and outgroup; no connectivity with outgroups – inferior so no need to interact, less desirable

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Islamic culture

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EGYPT – collectivistic Islamic society but most modern! What is unique about collectivism in egypy? Faith and Networks (extended kinships in all directions)
No separation between religion, business, and politics

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High context

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tend to be more masculine
Ex: usually collectivistic, more emphasis on non verbal communication; emphasize stability over change; are non confrontation;
China, India, Some African and South American cultures

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Low context

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tend more androgynous (both males and females)
Ex: more individualistic societies; favor confrontation – just need the facts; future-oriented; promote and romanticize change because with change comes progress
US

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Acculturation

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the process and result of extensive intercultural contact or cultural change influenced from outside influences
How American culture has influenced japan, etc

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Enculturation

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children of immigrants and how they go through the process of making adaptions in behavior to fit into an individualistic culture
How another culture within our culture responds to our culture

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Power Distance

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the degree of distribution of authority and influence in a given system; degree of separation between those in the upper ranks and people in middle and bottom level
Ex: China – Totalinarian Government: has a very large power distance
Ex: America or Switzerland: has a small power distance

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Ethnocentrism

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people’s tendency to consider certain aspects of their culture superior to other cultures; learned in childhood and reinforced in adulthood
Not easily changed
Cause of intercultural misunderstanding, conflict, hostility
Learned unconsciously

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Etic

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shared across cultures; concepts that can be found among people all over the world
Ex: Gender roles
Etic research = studying differences across many cultures

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Emic

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found in specific cultures; is different between cultures; culturally specific con
Ex: Maleness and femaleness in a specific culture
Emic research = studying one specific (primarily what anthropologists conduct)
 globalization is producing more and more etic elements all over the world

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Subjective Culture

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the values within a culture that are intangible

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Stereotypes

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form of categorization; mostly inaccurate ideas or generalization about the characteristics of a group of people (without taking into consideration the uniqueness of individuals within the group)
Auto – how people in a culture think of think of themselves/use to describe themselves
i.e. Americans as hardworking and individualistic
hetero – stereoptypes that people in one culture have about people in another culture
sociotypes – are fairly accurate descriptions

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Things we can study about stereotypes:

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We can study the intensity of individuals regarding stereotyoes
-- We can study how specific the attributes or behaviors that are stereotyped to a specific group of people
-- We can study how valid the stereotypes are (most are unfounded)
-- We can study the history and origin of the stereotype
 Stereotypes impede or act as a barrier to interaction, greater understanding of different subgroups and different cultures within our society

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2 Types of Bias in Cross-Cultural Research:

Kohlberg’s Theory - 2 Criticisms:

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andorocentric (Gender Biased):
Cultural-Biased:

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Incidence of cardiovascular disease

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are more common and individualistic cultures and cultures where the pace of life is faster.
US, Canada
Very low in places where the pace of life is slower
Japan

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High uncertainty avoidance

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present in collectivistic cultures

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Low Uncertainty Avoidance

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present in individualistic cultures
 related to concept of saving face

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Advantages of cross-cultural research:

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Helps us better understand a culture (cultural awareness) and we become more respectful (reduce ethnocentrism)
Helps us check or evaluate or determine the extent to which theories we use of human behavior, to see if they are generalizable/applicable to other societies and cultures
Has potential of identifying confounding variables
i.e. claim that drinking a glass of wine is healthy becaue mediterrannian cultures do it – but too many confounding variables that affect health
i.e. is there a relationship between culture and mental health, but what is the reason? Unique elements in the culture

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Study by Buss across 30 cultures of men and women relationships – in Brislin

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Men want pretty face, bitches want da dough

 Sex is the biological characteristics of men and women
 gender role is a group of behaviors that are socially and culturally defined as appropriate
japan = highly masculine
adroginous patterns of behavior?
Women have greater self esteem