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269 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is motivation?
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"an inner state of arousal" with aroused energy directed to achieving a goal
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What is Goal-Relevent behavior?
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The willingness to do more things that make it more likely for someone to achieve their goals.
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What is motivated reasoning?
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processing information in a way that allows consumers to reach a particular conclusion
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What is felt involvement?
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the psychological experience of the motivated consumer
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What are the types of felt involvement?
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1. Enduring
2. Situational 3. Cognitive 4. Affective |
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What is enduring involvement?
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showing interest in an offering or activity over a long period of time
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What is stimulational involvement?
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involvement that is high only when the consumer is trying to achieve their goal
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Ahat is cognitive involvement?
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the consumer is interested in thinking about and processing information related to their goal. The goal includes learning.
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What is affective involvement?
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the consumer is willing to expend emotional energy or has heightened feeling about an offering.
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When do consumers see things as personally relevant and important?
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When it is...
1. Consistent with their values, goals and needs 2. risky 3. moderately inconsistent with prior attitudes |
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What does personally relevant mean?
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the extent to which it has a direct bearing on and significant consequences or implications for your life
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What are values?
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beliefs that guide what people regard as good or important
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What is a goal?
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a particular end state or outcome that a person would like to achieve
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What is a need?
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an internal state of tension caused by a disequilibrium from an ideal or desired state
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What is Maslow's Hierarchy of needs?
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needs are categorized into a basic hierarchy. people fulfill the lower-order needs before higher-order needs
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What are social needs?
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needs that require the presence or actions of other people
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What are nonsocial needs?
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needs which achievement is not based on other people
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What are functional needs?
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they motivate the search for products that solve consumption-related problems
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What are symbolic needs?
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they affect how we perceive ourselves and how we are perceived by others
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What are hedonic needs?
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needs for sensory stimulation, cognitive stimulation & novelty
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What are the characteristics of needs?
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1. Dynamic (always changing)
2. Exist in a hierarchy (various levels of importance) 3. Internally or Externally aroused 4. Can conflict (filling one can cause a problem for filling another) |
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What is an approach avoidance conflict?
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you want to engage in a behavior and avoid it at the same time
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What is an approach-approach conflict?
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You must choose between two or more desirable behaviors.
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What is an avoidance-avoidance conflict?
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You must choose between two or more undesirable behaviors.
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What is perceived risk?
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the extent to which the consumer is uncertain about the personal consequences of buying, using or disposing of an offering
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What is performance Risk?
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uncertainty about whether the product or service will perform as expected
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What is financial risk?
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high if the offering is expensive
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What is physical risk?
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the potential harm a product or service might pose to one's safety
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What is social risk?
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the potential harm to one's social standing that may arise from buying, using or disposing of an offering
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What is psychological risk?
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the consumers' concern about the extent to which a product or service fits with the way they perceive themselves
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What is time risk?
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uncertainties over the length of time that must be invested in buying, using, or disposing of the product
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What is ability?
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the extent to which consumers have the necessary sources to make the outcome happen
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What affects ability?
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knowledge, experience, cognitive style, complexity of information, intelligence, education, age & money
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How can people gain knowledge & experience about products?
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product or service experiences such as ad exposures, interactions with salespeople, information from friends or the media, previous decision making or product usage, or memory
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What is cognitive style?
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preferences for ways information should be represented
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What is cognitive complexity?
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complicated processing of information from marketing communications
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What is opportunity?
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a factor that affects whether motivation results in action
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What affects opportunity?
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time, distraction, amount of information, repetition of information, control of information
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What is exposure?
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the process by which the consumer comes into physical contact with a stiumulus
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What are marketing stimuli?
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messages and information about products or brands, communicated by either the marketer or by nonmarketing sources
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What factors affect exposure?
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position of an ad within a medium, product distribution, shelf placement
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What is selective exposure?
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consumers choose to actively seek or avoid stimuli
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What is zipping?
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fast-forwarding through commercials
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What is zapping?
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skipping commercials all-together
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What is attention?
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the process by which we devote mental activity to a stimulus
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What are the characteristics of attention?
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1. selective
2. capable of being divided 3. limited |
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What is preattentive processing?
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the extent that we can process information from our peripheral vision even if we are not aware that we are doing so
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What is hemispheric lateralization?
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how the two halves of the brain process information
1. whether the stimulus is a picture or word 2. whether it is in our left or right visual field |
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How can marketers attract attention?
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Make the stimulus:
1. personally relevant 2. pleasant 3. surprising 4. easy to process |
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What is concreteness?
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the extent to which we can imagine a stimulus (apple vs. glory)
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What is perception?
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occurs when stimuli are registered by one of our five senses
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What is the absolute threshold?
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the minimum level of stimulus intensity needed for a stimulus to be perceived
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What is the differential threshold?
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the intensity difference needed between two stimuli before people can perceive that the stimuli are different
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What is Weber's Law?
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the stronger the initial stimulus, the greater the additional intensity needed for the second stimulus to be perceived as different
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What is subliminal perception?
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our perception of stimuli that are presented below the threshold level of awareness
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What is perceptual organization?
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a complex combination of numerous simple stimuli that consumers must organize into a unified whole
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What is the principle of figure and ground?
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people interpret incoming stimuli in contrast to a background
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What is closure?
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the fact that individuals have a need to organize perceptions so that they can form a meaningful whole
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What is grouping?
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the fact that we often group stimuli to form a unified picture or impression, making it easier to process them
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What is knowledge content?
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the information consumers have already learned about brands, companies, product categories, ads, people, how to shop, how to use products, etc.
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What is a knowledge structure?
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the way consumers organize knowledge
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What is categorization?
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the process of labeling or identifying an object that we perceive in our external environment based on its similarity to what we already know
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What is comprehension?
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the process of using prior knowledge to understand more about what is being categorized
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What is a schema?
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the set of associations linked to a concept
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What are the dimensions of schemas?
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1. Types of associations
2. favorability 3. uniqueness 4. salience |
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What are schemas created for?
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brands, people, services & stores, salespeople, ads, animals, countries, ourselves (self-schema)
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What is a brand personality?
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how someone would describe a brand if it were a person
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What is a script?
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a special type of schema that represents knowledge of a sequence of events
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What are taxonomic categories?
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a specifically defined division within an orderly classification of objects with similar objects in the same category
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What are the levels of taxonomic categories?
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Superordinate / basic / subordinate / category members / features
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What is a graded structure?
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the fact that category members vary in how well they are perceived to represent a category
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What is a prototype?
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the category member perceived to be the best example of a category
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What affects prototypicality?
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shared associations (how many features it shares with other members of the category), frequency of encounters
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What are correlated associations?
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features that are associated together that cause customers to infer about a new brand
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What are goal-derived categories?
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categories that contain things consumers view as relevant to the goal
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When does categorization occur?
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when consumers use their knowledge to label, identify and classify something new
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What happens after initial categorization?
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consumers may not be able to categorize the offering differently
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What is comprehension?
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the process of extracting higher-order meaning from an offering
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What is objective comprehension?
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whether the meaning that consumers extract from a message is consistent with what the message actually stated
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What is subjective comprehension?
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the different or additional meaning consumers attach to the message
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What is miscomprehension?
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when consumers inaccurately receive the meaning contained in a message
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What is an attitude?
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an overall evaluation that expresses how much we like or dislike an object, issue, person or action
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What do attitudes result in?
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1. guiding our thoughts (cognitive function)
2. influencing our feelings (affective function) 3. affect our behavior (connative function) |
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What are the characteristics of attitudes?
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1. favorability
2. attitude accessibility 3. attitude confidence 4. persistence (endurance) 5. resistance to change |
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what are cognitive responses?
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the thoughts we have when exposed to communication
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What are counterarguments?
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thoughts that express disagreement with the message
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What are support arguments?
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thought that express agreement with the message
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What are source derogations?
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thought that discount or attack the source of the message
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What are expectancy-value models?
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explain how consumers form and change attitudes based on beliefs or knowledge and their evaluation of these beliefs
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What is the theory of reasoned action (TORA)?
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behavior is a function of our intent to behave which is determined by our attitude toward performing the behavior and the influence of others' opinions
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What is attitude specificity?
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the more specific the attitude is to the behavior of interest, the more likely the attitude will be related to the behavior
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What are normative influences?
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how others can play into how people behave
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What are three good things about the TORA model?
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1. attitude specificity
2. normative influences 3. predict the intention to act rather than the action |
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What factors affect the credibility of a source (person)?
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1. trustworthiness
2. expertise 3. status |
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What is credibility?
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the likelihood that a consumer will believe the message
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What affects the credibility of a message?
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1. the quality of the argument
2. whether it is a one-sided or two-sided message 3. whether it is a comparative advantage |
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What is a one-sided message?
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a message that present only positive information
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What is a two-sided message?
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a message that contains both positive and negative information about an offering
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What are comparative messages?
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they show how much better an offering is than the competitor's
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What is effective involvement?
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emotional reactions to a stimulus when an object or decision is high
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What is an affective response?
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the generation of images or feelings rather than cognitive responses
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What are emotional appeals?
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messages evoking ego-focused responses (good in group-oriented cultures) or empathetic messages (good in individualistic cultures)
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How does attractiveness affect attitudes?
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the more attractive the source, the more favorable the attitude towards the source
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What does the match-up hypothesis say?
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the source should match the offering
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What characteristics of the message can influence consumers?
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emotional appeals & fear appeals
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What are common emotional appeals?
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love, desire, joy, hope, excitement, daring, fear, anger, shame, rejection
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What are fear appeals?
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the attempt to elicit fear or anxiety by stressing the negative consequences of either engaging or not engaging in a particular behavior
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What can affect the attitude toward the ad?
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1. utilitarian dimension (information)
2. hedonic dimension (feelings or emotions) 3. interesting - attracts attention/curiosity |
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What factors determine whether a consumer's attitude will affect their behavior?
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1. level of involvement/elaboration
2. knowledge or experience 3. analysis of reasons 4. accessibility of attitudes 5. attitude confidence 6. specificity of attitudes 7. attitude-behavior relationship over time 8. situational factors 9. normative factors 10. personality variables |
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What is the peripheral route to persuasion?
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the message is processed from the peripheral
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What are peripheral cues?
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visuals related to the offering
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What are simple inferences?
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simple beliefs based on simple associations
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What are heuristics?
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simple rules of thumb
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What is the frequency heuristic?
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consumers form a belief based on the number of supporting arguments
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What is the truth effect?
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consumers are actually likely to have stronger beliefs if they hear the message repeatedly
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What are the three major characteristics of communication?
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1. the source
2. the message 3. context in which the message is delivered |
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What is self-referencing?
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relating the message to their own expertise or self-image
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How can marketers increase self-referencing?
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1. directly instructing the consumers to use self-reference
2. Using the word YOU in the ad 3. asking rhetorical questions 4. showing visuals of situations to which the consumer can easily relate |
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What is the mere exposure effect?
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we tend to prefer familiar objects to unfamiliar ones
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What is classical conditioning?
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Pavlov (dogs eat), influencing attitudes without invoking much processing effort
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What does the dual-mediation hypothesis say?
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consumers can have a favorable attitude toward an ad either because they find it believable or they feel good about it
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What is the difference between classical conditioning and mood?
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Mood:
1. does not require a repeated association between two stimuli 2. can affect consumers' evaluations of any object, not just the stimulus |
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What happens when consumers are in a good mood?
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they ignore negative information about the brand as well as information about a competitor
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What are three major categories of affective responses?
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1. SEVA (communication puts consumer in an upbeat mood)
2. Deactivation feelings (soothing, relaxing, quiet or pleasant responses) 3. social affection (feelings of warmth, tenderness, caring) |
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What are the benefits of attractiveness?
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increased believability and actual purchase
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What is consumer memory?
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a vast personal storehouse of knowledge about products, services, shopping excursions, and consumption experiences
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What is retrieval?
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the process of remembering or accessing what we have stored into memory
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What is sensory memory?
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memory that stores sensory experiences temporarily
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What is echoic memory?
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memory of things we hear
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What is iconic memory?
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sensory memory of things we see
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What are the characteristics of sensory memory?
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Information is stored in its actual sensory form, short-lived (1/4 second to several seconds)
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What is short-term memory?
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the portion of memory where we encode or interpret incoming information in light of existing knowledge
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What is discursive processing?
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when we think about an object and represent it with a word
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What is imagery processing?
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representing the five senses of a property of an object
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What are the characteristics of short term memory?
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1. limited
2. short-lived |
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What is long-term memory?
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the part of memory where information is permanently stored for later use
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What is autobiographical memory?
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knowledge we have about ourselves and our past
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What is semantic memory?
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knowledge about the world that is detached from specific episodes about us
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What is chunking?
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breaking information into chunks to store in short-term memory
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What are chunks?
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a group of items that is processed as a unit
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What is rehearsal?
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we actively and consciously interact with the material we are trying to remember
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What is recirculation?
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transferring information to long-term memory by encountering it repeatedly
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What is elaboration?
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processing information at deeper levels to transfer into long-term memory
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What are semantic networks?
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they represent the organization of long-term memory or prior knowledge
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What is trace strength?
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the strength of the links or associations
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What is accessibility?
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the relative ease of retrieving information from memory
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What is spreading of activation?
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moving through memory and activating memories with other memories
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What is decay?
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forgetting things because trace strength fades
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What is interference?
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semantic networks are so closely aligned that we cannot remember which features go with which brand or concept
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What are the primacy and recency effects?
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The things we encountered first or last in a sequence are remembered most often
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What are retrieval errors?
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1. not remembering accurate or complete
2. selective memory 3. distorted memory |
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What is explicit memory?
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memory of some prior episode achieved through attempts to remember it
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What is recognition?
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identifying something we have seen before, such as brand recognition and ad recognition
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What is recall?
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remembering knowledge about a product as input for decision making
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What is free recall?
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retrieving something from memory without any help
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What is cued recall?
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remembering something from memory when given a cue to recall it
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What enhances retrieval?
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1. the stimulus itself
2. what the stimulus is linked to 3. the way the stimulus is processed 4. the characteristics of consumers |
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What is salience?
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the ability to stand out from the larger context
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What are redundant cues?
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information that goes together naturally
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What is a retrieval cue?
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a stimulus that facilitates the activation of memory
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What is problem recognition?
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the perceived difference between an ideal and an actual state
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What is the ideal state?
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the way consumers would like a situation to be
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What is the actual state?
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the real situation as consumers perceive it now
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What is an internal search?
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retrieving memories about past experiences with products/brands
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What do researchers want to know about the internal search?
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1. extent of the search
2. nature of the search 3. process by which consumers recall information, feelings and experiences |
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What are the four major types of information?
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1. brands
2. attributed 3. evaluations 4. experiences |
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What is a consideration set?
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a subset of brands consumers tend to recall (2-8)
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What is preference dispersion?
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the equality of preferences toward brands or products in a set
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What are the factors that increase the possibility of consumers recalling a brand?
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1. prototypicality
2. brand familiarity 3. goals & usage situation 4. brand preference 5. retrieval cues |
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What are the major variables that influence the recall of attribute information?
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1. accessibility or availability
2. diagnosticity 3. salience 4. vividness 5. goals |
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What is diagnostic information?
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helps us distinguish objects from one another
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What are salient attributes?
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prominent attributes
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What is attribute determinance?
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being both salient and diagnostic
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What is online processing?
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you determine whether you like the brand when you see an ad because you are already searching for the product
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What is a confirmation bias?
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our tendency to recall information that reinforces or confirms our overall beliefs rather than contradicting them
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What is an inhibition?
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prevention of recall
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What is an external search for information?
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researching outside sources such as dealers, trusted friends or relatives, published sources, advertising, the Internet or product package
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What is the prepurchase search?
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a response to the activation of problem recognition where consumers search for a product they choose to buy
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What is ongoing search?
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searching for information about a product on a regular basis
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What are the five key aspects of the external search process?
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1. the source of information
2. the extent of the external search 3. the content of the external search 4. search typologies 5. the process order of the search |
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What are the five major categories of external sources?
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1. retailer search
2. media search 3. interpersonal search 4. independent search 5. experiential search |
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What are the factors that increase our motivation to conduct an external search?
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1. involvement and perceived risk
2. perceived costs and benefits of the search 3. nature of the consideration set 4. relative brand uncertainty 5. attitudes towards the search 6. the level of discrepancy of new information |
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What variables affect the extent of an external search?
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1. consumer knowledge
2. cognitive abilities 3. demographic factors |
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What are the two major types of search processes?
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searching by brand
searching by attribute |
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What are judgments?
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evaluations for estimates regarding the likelihood of events
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What is an estimation of likelihood?
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our determination of the probability that something will occur
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What are judgments of goodness/badness?
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our evaluation of the desirability of the offerings' features
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What is the anchoring and adjustment process?
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anchoring the judgment of likelihood and goodness/badness on some initial value then adjusting or updating the evaluation as new information is considered
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What is imagery?
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visualization
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What are the various types of biases?
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1. Confirmation bias
2. Self-positivity bias 3. Negativity bias 4. Mood & bias 5. Prior brand evalutations |
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What is a confirmation bias?
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when consumers acquire and process only confirming evidence
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What is a self-positivity bias?
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when consumers believe they are less vulnerable to risk than others are
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What is a negativity bias?
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consumers weight negative information more heavily than positive information when forming judgements
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What is a mood bias?
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when the mood serves as the initial anchor for judgement
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What is a conjunctive probability assessment?
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when consumers estimate the likelihood that two events will occur simultaneously
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What is an illusory correlation?
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when consumers think a relationship exists that does not
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What is an inept set?
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options that are unacceptable
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What is an inert set?
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options that are treated with indifference
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What are cognitive models?
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they describe the processes by which consumers combine information about attributes to reach a decision in a rational, systematic manner
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What is a compensatory model?
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consumers choose the brand that has the greatest number of positive features relative to negative
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What is a noncompensatory model?
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negative information leads the consumer to immediately reject the brand or product from the consideration set
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What is brand processing?
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when consumers evaluate one brand at a time
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What is attribute processing?
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when consumers evaluate many brands one attribute at a time
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What is a multiattribute model?
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research focused on brand-based compensatory model
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What is the additive difference model?
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brands are compared by attribute TWO brands at a time
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What are cutoff levels?
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the level for an attribute that will cause a brand to be rejected if it is below the cutoff
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What is the conjunctive model?
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a set of MINIMUM cutoffs for EACH attribute that represent the absolute lowest level of value they are willing to accept
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What is the disjunctive model?
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the consumer sets up ACCEPTABLE levels for cutoffs (desirable) and bases decision on the most important attributes
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What is the lexicographic model?
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consumers order attributed in terms of importance and compare the options one attribute at a time
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What is the elimination-by-aspects model?
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consumers set up an acceptable cutoff and consider all attributes
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What is affective decision making?
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making a decision based on feelings or emotions
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What are noncomparable decisions?
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decisions that must be made when attributes cannot be compared
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What is the alternative-based strategy?
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consumers develop an overall evaluation for each option and base their decision on it
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What is the attribute-based strategy?
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consumers make comparisons between abstract representations of comparable attributes
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What are contextual effects?
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consumer characteristics, task characteristics, task definition or framing & the presence of a group
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What is the attraction effect?
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when inferior brands are added to the consideration set to increase decision accuracy and decrease effort
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What is an extremeness aversion?
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options perceived as extreme on a particular attribute seem less attractive
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What is decision framing?
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the way a task is defined or represented
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What is the representativeness heuristic?
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making comparisons to the category prototype in order to make simple estimations or judgements
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What is the availability heuristic?
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the ease with which instances of an event can be brought to mind
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What is base-rate information?
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how often an event actually occurs
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What is the law of small numbers?
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people expect information obtained from a small sample to be typical of the larger population
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What is the high-effort hierarchy?
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Beliefs -> Attitudes -> Behavior
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What is the low-effort hierarchy?
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Beliefs -> Behavior -> Attitudes
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What is optimizing?
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the goal to find the best possible brand
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What is satisfice?
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to fine a brand that simply satisfies needs
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What are choice tactics?
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decision heuristics that result in quick, effortless decision making
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What are the types of choice tactics?
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1. Affect tactics (I like it)
2. Performance tactics (it works) 3. Normative tactics (mom bought it) 4. habit tactics (buy the same as before) 5. brand loyalty 6. variety-seeking tactics |
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What is operant conditioning?
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viewing behavior as a function of previous actions and of the reinforcements or punishments obtained from these actions
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What are the two broad categories of low-involvement decisions?
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thought based
feeling based |
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What are performance-related tactics?
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deciding based on what works the best of has a specific attribute or benefit
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What are price-related tactics?
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buying the cheapest brand on sale or using a coupon
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What are normative choice tactics?
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using information you receive from people around you
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What is the results of normative choice tactics?
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1. direct influence
2. vicarious observation 3. indirect influence |
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What is an affect?
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low-level feelings
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What are affect-related tactics?
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a form of category-based processing where we base our decision on how we feel
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What is affect referral?
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referring to how I feel about something
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What is brand familiarity?
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exposure to a brand
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What is variety seeking?
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wanting to try something different
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What is post-decision dissonance?
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feeling uncertain that a consumer has made the right choice
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How do you reduce post-decision dissonance?
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search for additional information from sources such as experts and magazines
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What is post-decision regret?
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consumers perceive an unfavorable comparison between the performance of the chosen option and the performance of an unchosen option
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What is hypothesis testing?
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forming a hypothesis based on past experience or another source and then setting out to test it
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What are the basic stages of hypothesis testing?
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1. hypothesis generation
2. exposure to evidence 3. encoding of evidence 4. integration of evidence and prior beliefs |
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What is hypothesis generation?
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creating a hypothesis from information
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What is exposure to evidence?
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encountering a product to base
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What is encoding the evidence?
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assessing the information gathered from exposure
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What is integrating the evidence?
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making the evidence fit into previous information
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What are the four factors that affect learning from experience?
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1. motivation
2. prior familiarity 3. ambiguity of the information 4. processing biases |
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What is ambiguity of information?
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when many offerings are similar in quality and consumers can glean little information from the experience
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What is satisfaction?
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having a positive evaluation of the chosen product
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What is dissatisfaction?
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having a negative evaluation of an oucome
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What is disconfirmation?
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discrepancy between prior expectations and the product's actual performance
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What are expectations?
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desired product/service outcomes
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What is performance?
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measurement of whether the expected outcomes have been achieved
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What is positive disconfirmation?
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better than expected performance
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What is simple confirmation?
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performance is as good as expected
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What is negative disconfirmation?
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performance is lower than expected
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What are post-decision feelings?
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feelings that help explain the satisfaction or dissatisfaction
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What is attribution theory?
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explains how individuals find explanations or causes for effects or behavior
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What are the three key factors in attribution theory?
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1. stability
2. focus 3. controllability |
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What is equity theory?
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a theory focusing on the nature of exchanges between individuals and their perceptions of these exchanges
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What is fairness in the exchange?
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perception that the consumer has purchased a desirable system at a fair price
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What are the typical responses to dissatisfaction?
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1. take no action
2. discontinue purchasing the product or service 3. complain to the company 4. engage in negative word-of-mouth communication |
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What is customer retention?
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the practice of working to satisfy customers with the intention of developing long-term relationships with them
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What is disposition?
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throwing away of meaningless or used-up items without any though
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What are the various ways products can be disposed of?
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1. given away
2. traded to someone else as part of a purchase of another item 3. recycled 4. sold 5. used up 6. thrown away 7. abandoned (discarding in a socially unacceptable way) 8. destroyed |
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What is physical detachment?
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an item is physically transferred to another person or location
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What is emotional detachment?
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forgetting an item
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