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237 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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The study of the effects of drugs on the nervous system an on behaviour |
Psychopharmacology |
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The changes we can observe in an animal's physiological processes and behaviour. |
Drug effects |
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The points at which molecules of drugs interact with molecules located on or in cells of the body, thus affecting some biochemical processes of these cells. |
Sites of action |
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The most common route of administration of drugs to lab animals. |
Injection |
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The fastest route of administration of a drug (reaches the brain in a few seconds) |
Intravenous injection |
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Method of administration where it is injected through the abdominal wall into the peritoneal cavity. |
Intraperitoneal injection |
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Injection made to a large muscle |
Intramuscular injection |
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method of injection useful only if small amounts of the drug need to be administered. |
subcutaneous injection |
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Most common form of administering medication to humans, but least common in the lab. |
Oral administration |
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Method of administration where the drug is placed beneath the tongue. |
Sublingual administration |
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Which method of administration works only with humans |
Sublingual administration |
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Administration of a substance into the rectum. |
Intrarectal administration |
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Method of administration most commonly used to administer drugs that might upset a person's stomach. |
Intrarectal administration |
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Administration of a vaporous/smokey substance into the lungs. |
Inhalation |
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Administration of a substance directly onto the skin or mucous membrane using creams, ointments, or patches. |
Topical administration |
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Define insufflation. |
As in with cocaine, a powdered substance is breathed in through the nose and absorbed through the nasal mucous membrane. |
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Administration of a substance directly into the brain |
Intracerebral administration |
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Administration of a substance into one of the cerebral ventricles. |
Intracerebroventricular administration |
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What organ primarily excretes drugs?
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Kidneys
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What is the best way to measure the effectiveness of a drug? |
Plot a dose-response curve |
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What is it called when subjects are given various doses of a drug(mg/kg body weight) and plot the effects of the drug. |
Dose-response curve
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The point at which increasing the dose of the drug does not produce any more effect. |
The point of maximum effect |
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The ratio between the dose that produces the desired effect in 50% of the animasl and the dose that produces toxic effects in 50% of the animals. |
Therapeutic index |
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The _____ the therapeutic index, the more care must be taken in prescribing it. |
lower |
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What are the 2 reasons for variation in drug effectiveness? |
- different drugs have different sites of action
- different affinities with their sites of action |
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Readiness with which 2 molecules join together.
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affinity |
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A drug with high affinity will produce effects at a relatively _____ concentration. |
low |
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A decrease in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly. |
Tolerance |
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An increase in the effectiveness of a drug that is administered repeatedly. |
Sensitization |
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The appearance of symptoms opposite to those produced by a drug when the drug is administered repeatedly and then suddenly no longer taken. |
Withdrawal symptoms |
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What starts to produce the opposite effects when a drugs is used for a prolonged period of time in order to maintain optimal value of bodily functions? |
Compensatory mechanisms.
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Which is more common, sensitization, or tolerance?
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Tolerance
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An inert substance that is given to an organism in lieu of a physiologically active drug; used experimentally to control for the effects of mere administration of a drug. |
Placebo |
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What is the group called that receives the placebo in an experiment. |
Control group |
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A drug that facilitates the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell |
Agonist |
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A drug that opposes or inhibit the effects of a particular neurotransmitter on the postsynaptic cell. |
Antagonist |
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What is the first step in the drug effects on synaptic transmission? |
Synthesis of neurotransmitter from its precursors. |
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What controls the synthesis of neurotransmitters? |
enzymes |
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Neurotransmitters are stored in _______, which are transported to the ______ where the chemicals are released. |
synaptic vesicles, presynaptic membrane |
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What is the most important and complex site of action of drugs in the nervous system? |
Receptors (both pre- and postsynaptic) |
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Once a neurotransmitter has been released, it must stimulate the ________. |
Postsynaptic receptors |
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a drug that binds with and activates a receptor just like a neurotransmitter would. |
Direct agonist |
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A drug that binds with a receptor but does not activate it; prevents the natural ligand from binding with the receptor. |
Receptor blocker (AKA direct antagonist) |
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What is a synonym for receptor blocker |
Direct antagonist |
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Binding of a drug to a site on a receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand. |
Noncompetitive binding |
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A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and interferes with the aciton of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand. |
Indirect antagonist. |
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What is the difference between a direct and an indirect antagonist? |
The site of action |
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A drug that attaches to a binding site on a receptor and facilitates the ction of the receptor; does not interfere with the binding site for the principal ligand. |
Indirect agonist |
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What do drugs that selectively activate preseynaptic receptors act as? |
antagonists |
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What do drugs that block presynaptic autoreceptors act as? |
agonists |
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What is the next step after stimulation of the postsynaptic receptor? |
Termination of the postsynaptic potential |
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Neurotransmitter with excitatory effects |
glutamate |
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2 Neurotransmitters with inhibitory effects |
GABA, glycine |
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Which neuron is the exception to "all sensory organs transmit information to the brain through axons whose terminals release glutamate. |
Pain detecting neurons |
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What do pain detecting neurons secrete? |
peptides |
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In general, what do all other neurotransmitters do? |
have modulating effects (modulate)
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The secretion of _____ activates the cerebral cortex and facilitates learning. |
Acetylcholine |
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Information that is learned and remembered is transmitted by neurons that secrete _____ and _____. |
glutamate and GABA |
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Secretion of ______ increases vigilance and enhances readiness to act when a signal is detected. |
Norepinephrine |
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Secretion of _______ enhances wakefulness. |
Histamine. |
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Secretion of ______ suppresses certain categories of species specific behaviours and reduces the likelihood that animals will react impulsively. |
Serotonin |
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Secretion of ________ in some regions of the brain generally activates voluntary movements but does not specify which movements will occur. |
Dopamine |
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The primary neurotransmitter secreted by efferent axons of the CNS. |
Acetylcholine |
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All muscular movement is accomplished by the release of ____ . |
Acetylcholine |
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Where is acetylcholine found? |
CNS, gangla of the ANS, target organs |
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The acetylcholinergic neurons located in the dorsolateral pns play a role in what? |
REM sleep |
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Acetylcholinergic neurons in the basal forebrain are involved in activating the cerebral cortex and _______. |
Facilitating learning (especially perceptive learning) |
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What is acetylcholine composed of? |
- Choline - Acetate |
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What attaches choline and acetate? |
acetyl-CoA (coenzyme A) |
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Where is acetyl CoA produced? |
mitochondria |
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The enzyme that transfers the acetate ion from acetyl coenzyme A to choline, producing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine |
choline acetyltransferase (ChAT) |
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Botulinum toxin is an acetylcholine ________; it prevents release by terminal buttons |
antagonist |
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Black widow spider venom is a poison produced by the black widow psider that _______________ of acetylcholine. |
triggers the release |
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Which enzyme deactivates acetylcholine? |
acetylcholinesterase |
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What is the hereditory disorder caused by an attack of a person's immune system against acetylcholine receptors located on skeletal muscles? |
Myasthenia gravis |
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A drug that inhibits the activity of acetylcholinesterase |
Neostigmine |
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What are the 2 types of Ach receptors? |
ionotropic and metabotropic |
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An ionotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by nicotine and blocked by curare. |
nicotinic receptor |
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a metabotropic acetylcholine receptor that is stimulated by muscarine and blocked by atropine. |
muscarinic receptor |
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A drug that blocks muscarinic acetylcholine receptors. |
atropine |
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a drug that blocks nicotinic acetylcholine receptors |
curare |
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Which neurotransmitter is thought to be linked to Alzheimer's disease? |
Acetylcholine |
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a class of amines that includes indolamines such as serotonin adn catecholamines such as dopamine, norepinephrine and epinephrine. |
monoamines |
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a class of amines that includes the neurotransmitters dopamine, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. |
catecholamines |
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The neurotransmitter implicated in several important functions, including movement, attention, learning and the reinforcing effects of drugs that people tend to abuse. |
Dopamine |
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The precursor for dopamine and norepinephrine. |
tyrosine |
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how do we obtain tyrosine |
diet |
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What does an enzyme convert tyrosine into? |
L-DOPA |
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The levorotary form of DOPA; the precursor of the catecholamines; often used to treat Parkinson's disease because of its effect as a dopamine agonist |
L-DOPA |
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an enzyme converts L-DOPA into what? |
dopamine |
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In noradrenic neurons, dopamine is converted to ______ by an enzyme. |
norepinephrine |
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A system of neurons originating in the substantia nigra and terminating in the neostriatum (caudate nucleus and putamen) |
nigrostriatial system |
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A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the nucleus accumbens, amygdala and hippocampus. |
mesolimbic system |
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Plays an important role in the reinforcing effects of certain categories of stimuli, including those of drugs that people abuse. |
Nucleus accumbens |
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A system of dopaminergic neurons originating in the ventral tegmental area and terminating in the prefrontal cortex. |
mesocortical system |
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The neurons in the __________ have an excitatory effect on the frontal cortex and thus affect such functions as formation of short-term memories, planning, and strategy preparation for problem solving. |
mesocortical system |
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Region normally stained black with melanin |
substantia nigra |
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Inactivates tyrosine hydroxylase. |
AMPT |
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A drug that blocks activity of tyrosine hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of the catecholamines. |
AMPT |
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The enzyme that converts tyrosine to L-DOPA. |
Tyrosine hydroxylase |
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A drug that interferes with the storage of monoamines in synaptic vesicles by blocking the transporters in the membrane of vesicles in the terminals of monoaminergic neurons . |
Reserpine |
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Is reserpine a monoamine agonist or antagonist? |
antagonist |
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____ receptors are exlcusively postsynaptic, while____ receptors are found both pre and postsynaptically. |
D1; D2 |
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Causes the release of both dopamine and morepinephrine by causing the transporters for these neurtransmitters to run in reverse, propelling DA and NE into the synaptic cleft. |
Amphetamine. |
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Cocaine and methylphenidate do what? |
blcok dopamine reuptake |
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What is production of catecholamines regulated by? |
Monoamine oxidase (MAO) |
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What does MAO destroy? |
excessive amounts of neurotransmitter |
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What does deprenyl serve as? |
dopamine agonist |
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Without MAO in blood, what could happen after ingestion of chocolate and cheese? |
Dangerous increase in blood pressure |
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A mental disorders whose symptoms include hallucinations, delusions, and disruption of normal, logical thought processes. |
Schizophrenia |
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A drug that reduces the symptoms of schizophrenia by blocking D2 recptors. |
Chlorpromazine |
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One of the catecholamines; a neurotransmitter fround in the brain and in the sympathetic division of the ANS. |
Norepinephrine |
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One of the catecholamines; a hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla; serves also as a neurotransmitter in the brain. |
Epinephrine. |
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Drug that prevents the conversion of dopamine to norepinephrine. |
Fusaric acid |
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Almost every region of the brain receives input from ______. |
noradrenic neurons |
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Neurons in the CNS contain ____________ and __________. |
Beta 1 and 2 adrenic receptors and Alpha 1 and 2 adrenergic receptors. |
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What is responsible for the effects of the catecholamines when they act as hormones outside the CNS? |
Beta 1 and 2 adrenic receptors and Alpha 1 and 2 adrenergic receptors. |
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All adrenergic receptors are ______, coupled to G proteins that control the production of second messengers. |
metabotropic |
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A dark coloured group of noreadrenergic cell bodies located in the pons near the rostral end of the floor of the 4th ventricle. |
Locus coeruleus |
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A drug that blocks presynaptic noradrenic alpha 2 receptors and hence acts as an agonist, stimulating the synthesis and release of NE. |
Idazoxan
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An indolamine neurotransmitter; also called 5-hydroxytryptamine (5-HT) |
Serotonin |
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Neurotransmitter that regulates mood, controls eating, sleep and arousal, and regulates pain. |
Serotonin |
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What type of neurons are involved in the control of daydreaming? |
Serotonergic neurons |
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Which amino acid is the precursor for serotonin? |
Tryptophan |
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What does an enzyme convert tryptophan to before converting it to serotonin? |
5-HTP |
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A drug that inhibits the activity of tryptophan hydroxylase and thus interferes with the synthesis of 5-HT. |
PCPA |
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Cell bodies of serotonergic neurons are found in 9 clusters, most of which are located in the _____ of the ______, _____, and ______. |
Raphe nuclei; midbrain; pons; medulla |
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Where are the 2 most important clusters of serotonergic neurons? |
Dorsal and medial raphe nuclei |
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Both _____ and _____ raphe nuclei project axons to the cerebral cortex. |
Dorsal and median |
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Neurons in the dorsal raphe innervate ______, those in the median raphe innervate the ______. |
basal ganglia; dentate gyrus |
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A drug that inhibits the reuptake of 5-HT and is used to treat depression, some forms of anxiety disorders, and OCD. |
Fluoxetine |
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A drug that stimulates the release of 5-HT and was formerly used as an appetite suppressant. |
Fenfluramine |
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Loss of which neurotransmitter leads to Parkinson's? |
Dopamine |
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Which neurotransmitter is active in maintaining emotional tone? |
norepinephrine |
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Increases in which neurotransmitter are thought to be related to mania? |
Norepinephrine |
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The neurtransmitter active in maintaining waking EEG patterns. |
Serotonin |
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Increases in which neurotransmitter are related to OCD? |
Serotonin |
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Which 3 neurotransmitters are monoamines? |
Dopamine, norepinephrine, serotonin |
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What neurotransmitter is a quaternary amine? |
Acetylcholine |
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What are the 2 classes of monoamines? |
Catecholamines and Indolamines |
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Which 2 neurotransmitters are catecholamines?
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Dopamine and norepinephrine |
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Which neurotransmitter is an indolamine? |
Serotonin |
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What is glutamate and GABA classified as? |
Amino acids |
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Which neurotransmitter is high during REM sleep? |
Acetylcholine |
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Which neurotransmitter is affiliated with Learning and memories? |
Acetylcholine |
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Which neurotransmitter does amphetamines alter, producing schizophrenic-like delusions?
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Dopamine
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What disease is cause by degeneration of the nigrostriatial dopamine system? |
Parkinson's |
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Which neurotransmitter has pathways in the locus coeruleus? |
Norepinephrine |
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Which neurotransmitter is linked with regulation of mood and pain? |
Serotonin
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Which neurotransmitter is also a precursor to Norepinephrine?
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Dopamine |
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Which neurotransmitter is linked to increase in vigilance, attention, sexual behaviour, and appetite? |
Norepinephrine |
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Mesencephalic serotoninergic cells project to which brain structures? |
Thalamus, basal ganglia, and cortex |
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What are the workhorses of the neurotransmitter family? |
Amino Acids |
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What is the primary excitatory neurotranmitter? |
Glutamate |
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What is the primary inhibitory neurotransmitter? |
GABA |
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What does the neurons secrete for information that is learned and remembered? |
Glutamate and GABA |
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What does activation of the NMDA receptor cause entry of in the glutamate receptor? |
Ca |
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Which receptor is necessary for brain stability? |
GABA |
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What does an abnormality in the GABA receptor cause? |
Epilepsy
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What are Barbituates, in terms of what they do? |
GABA agonists |
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What class of drugs help with anxiety, sleep and seizure treatments? |
Barbituates |
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______ are produced in minute quantities, found in the body outside of the brain; and are tremendously potent and long-acting. |
Peptides |
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_______ have been used for centuries to relieve pain. |
Opiates |
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What is the wanting and liking theory of addiction? |
Incentive sensitization model |
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What is the equivalent to craving a drug? |
Wanting |
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What is the equivalent to receiving pleasure from taking a drug? |
Liking |
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In the incentive sensitization model, what happens with repeated use? |
Tolerance for liking and wanting becomes sensitized |
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Which type of drugs are the most addictive? |
fast-acting drugs |
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What is one reason slow-acting drugs might be addictive? |
The memory of taking the drug is paired with its effect |
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Which type of drug is it tough to addict animals to? |
slow-acting drugs |
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Taking drugs for pleasure is ______ reinforcement. |
positive |
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Addictive drugs cause the release of dopamine in the ____. |
nucleus accumbens |
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Which 2 actions can drugs take, with regards to dopamine? |
agonist, reuptake inhibitor |
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What are the positive symptoms of Schizophrenia? |
Hallucinations, delusions, paranoia |
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What are the negative symptoms of Schizophrenia? |
Lack of emotion, energy, and directedness |
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Overactivity in which pathway is though to mediate the positive symptoms of schizophrenia? |
Mesolimbic dopamine pathway |
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Underactivity in which pathway has been hypothesized to be the mediator of negative symptoms of Schizophrenia? |
Mesocortical dopamine pathway |
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Glutamate agonists help with the negative symptons of Schizophrenia, but what is the downfall? |
Seizures |
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Who was Alzheimer's disease first described by? |
Alois Alzheimer's |
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What is present in the Alzheimer's brain that is not in the regular? |
Amyloid plaques |
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Which disease is characterized by severe atrophy? |
Alzheimer's |
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What are the 2 common treatments for Alzheimer's? |
Cognitive enhancers and NMDA receptor antagonists |
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What does the cognitive enhancer acetylcholinesterase inhibitors do to offset loss of cholinergic neurons? |
Stops acetylcholinesterase from destroying synaptic acetylcholine |
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Describe how NMDA receptor antagonists work. |
Cells damaged by Alzheimer's release a large amount of glutamate, which over-excites NMDA receptors, which in turn speed up cell damage - partially blocking NMDA receptors prevents this destructive chain. |
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What is a possible treatment for Parkinson's? |
Administration of L-DOPA |
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What is a characteristic of a drug? |
An exogenous chemical |
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Drugs that block or inhibit the postsynaptic receptor effects are termed |
Antagonists |
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Which pair of transmitters are most involved in synaptic neurotransmission in the brain? |
Glutamate and GABA |
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Which neurotransmitter aids with the facilitation of learning? |
Acetylcholine |
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Parkinson's disease involves degeneration of neurons within the ______ dopamine system. |
Nigrostriatial |
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What are 5 lesion methods? |
Ablation Radio frequency lesion chemical lesion reversible chemical lesion Cooling |
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In lesion studies, what do we assume? |
That if cognition X is disrupted after the lesion to brain part Y, then brain part Y supports function X |
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Summarize the modular concept of brain organization. |
A place for everything and everything in its place. |
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A change in behaciour after a lesion coud eb due to which 3 categories? |
- The loss of function is supported by that region - The loss of a sub-component necessary for the behaviour caused by disruption to the network - Co-existing behavioural changes unrelated to the particular region |
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What does a high frequency radio pulse destroy? |
Everything |
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What do chemical lesions target? |
Specific neurotransmitters' neurons |
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What does an excitotoxic lesion do? |
spares axons that are passing through the area |
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What types of reversible lesions are available? |
anesthetic or cooling |
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What happens when a monkey is deprived of sensory feedback to one limb? |
Favour the other limb |
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What happens when a monkey is deprived of sensory feedback form both limbs? |
Will not favour one over the other |
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What is a disadvantage to reversible lesions? |
You don't get to study the actual brain right away because you don't euthanize the animal, so you don't know if the lesion was where you wanted it to be |
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What does stereotaxic surgey use as a landmark? |
Bregma |
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What do you call the group of animals that undergoes the same steps as the animals receiving a brain lesion, but don't receive the actual lesion. |
Sham group |
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What are 3 common test of lesioned animals? |
- Radial arm maze (remembering places visited) - Spatial orientation/memory (water test) - Bar pressing task (effects of reinforcement) |
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What is the word for slicing and staining the brain? |
Histology
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What is the reason for histology? |
- Determine if we made the right lesions - Prevent the brain from destroying itself after death |
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What does the fixative formalin do? |
- Stop autolysis - Kill micro-organisms - Hardens brain |
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What is the word for draining the blood and replacing it with another fluid in the brain? |
Perfusion
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What colour is a Nissl stain? |
Blue-violet |
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What does a Nissl stain show off? |
Different layers of the cortex Nuclei |
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What colour is a myelin stain? |
Brown |
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What does a myelin stain stain? |
Myelin |
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Which stain shows the neuron in great detail including dendritic branches? |
Golgi stain |
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What does single cell neurophysiology do? |
record response of neuron(s) to specific tasks AND examine the effect of stimulating one neuron on another |
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What is the difference between human and animal lesions? |
Human lesions cannot be controlled |
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What does the choice of single case VS group studies depend on? |
Nature of damage and questions being asked
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What is the control group in humans? |
neurologically intact individuals |
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What is printing the word RED in green and having the person try to say the colour not read the word and example of? |
Cognitive psychology |
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In __________ testing, there are standardized tests that people with a suspected brain injury are scored against. |
Clinical |
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What is an advantage of a reversible lesion? |
- Each animal can serve as its own control - Axons of passage are not affected by reversible procedures - Cell bodies are not affected by reversible procedures - These lesions only affect brain tissues near the tip of the lesion device |
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________ is a device used to implant an electrode or cannula into the brain. |
Stereotaxic apparatus |
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______ refers to a skull landmark which also serves as a reference point for stereotaxic surgery. |
Bregma |
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_______ instrument is used to slice the brain into thin pieces for later examination. |
Microtome |
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Dyes such as cresyl violet are useful for staining |
Cell bodies |
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What does CAT stand for in CAT scan? |
Computerized Axial Tomography |
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How does a CAT scan work? |
X rays passed through the brain at different angles, and the different brain tissues that have different densities only let so much through, creating an image. |
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Which has better spatial resolution, CT or MRI? |
MRI |
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Between CT and MRI, which has faster imaging of lesions? |
MRI
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A ___________ is used in MRI to push protons out of alignment with the magnetic field. |
Radio frequency pulse |
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The time it takes for protons pushed out of alignment to come back into alignment with the magnetic field.
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Longitudinal relaxation |
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Which fact allows us to differentiate things like white and grey matter in an MRI? |
Different types of tissue approach equilibrium at different rates
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What measures the structure of the cerebral blood supply? |
Angiogram |
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What does an angiogram image? |
Aneurysms and other vascular defects |
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What is used in combination with x-rays in an angiogram? |
contrast agents |
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What type of scan do we use for brain anatomy? |
CT & MRI |
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What type of scans do we use for brain function? |
EEg, PET, fMRI |
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What are Event-Related Potentials and Visual Evoked Potentials derivative of? |
EEG |
