Ap Biology Chapter 1, 4, 20, 21, 22 Test

Front 1

Seven characteristics shared between living systems

Back 1

1. Cellular Organization 2. Ordered Complexity 3. Sensitivity 4. Growth, development, and reproduction 5. Uses energy 6. Homeostasis 7. Evolutionary adaptation

Front 2

Levels of Organization: Cellular Level

Back 2

1. Atoms 2. Molecules 3. Organelles 4. Cells

Front 3

Levels of Organization: Organism Level

Back 3

1. Tissues 2. Organs 3. Organ Systems 4. Organism

Front 4

Levels of Organization: Population Level

Back 4

1. Population 2. Species 3. Community 4. Ecosystem

Front 5

Emergent Properties

Back 5

At each higher level in the living hierarchy, new properties emerge. These emergent properties result from the way in which components interact, and they often cannot trace it just from looking at the parts themselves.

Front 6

Deductive Reasoning

Back 6

Applies general principles to predict specific results

Front 7

Inductive Reasoning

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The logic flows in the opposite direction, from the specific to the general. It uses specific observations to develop a general conclusion.

Front 8

Hypothesis

Back 8

A possible explanation for an observation

Front 9

Experiment

Back 9

The test of a hypothesis

Front 10

Variables

Back 10

Many factors

Front 11

Test Experiment

Back 11

One variable is altered in a known way to test a particular hypothesis

Front 12

Control Experiment

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The particular variable is left unaltered

Front 13

Reductionism

Back 13

An approach scientists use to understand a complex system by reducing it to its working parts

Front 14

Models

Back 14

To imitate phenomena that are difficult to study directly

Front 15

Theory (2 Definitions)

Back 15

1. A proposed explanation for some natural phenomenon and is often based on a general principle 2. The body of interconnected concepts, supported by scientific reasoning and experimental evidence, that explains the facts in some area of study.

Front 16

Artificial Selection

Back 16

Animal breeders select certain varieties to produce certain characteristics. It produces a lot of different traits ex. dogs, cows

Front 17

Natural Selection

Back 17

Nature selects certain varieties to produce certain characteristics

Front 18

Homologous Structures

Back 18

Structures that are shared by related species and that have been inherited from a common ancestor. ex. the differently shaped front limbs of modern vertebrates

Front 19

Analogous Structures

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Structures that have similar function but different evolutionary origins ex. The wing of a bee and the wing of a bird are analogous structures.

Front 20

Phylogenetic Tree

Back 20

The pattern of descent obtained and it represents the evolutionary history of the gene. It's "family tree". Shows evolutionary relationships

Front 21

Cell Theory

Back 21

Proposed by Schleiden and Schwann 1. All living organisms consist of cells 2. All cells come from preexisting cells 3. Cells are the smallest living things, the basic unit of organization of all organisms

Front 22

Molecular Basis of Inheritance

Back 22

DNA encodes genes which control living organisms and are passed from one generation to the next

Front 23

Cells Information Processing System

Back 23

Cells process information stored in DNA as well as information received from the environment

Front 24

Structure and function

Back 24

1. The proper function of a molecule is dependent on its structure 2. The structure of a molecule can tell us about its function

Front 25

Evolutionary Change

Back 25

Living organisms have evolved fro the same origin event. The diversity of life is the result of the evolutionary change.

Front 26

Evolutionary Conservation

Back 26

Critical characteristics of early organisms are preserved and passed on to future generations

Front 27

Evolution

Back 27

Modification of a species over generations, "descent with modification"

Front 28

Natural Selection

Back 28

Individuals with superior physical or behavioral characteristics are more likely to survive and reproduce than those without such characteristics

Front 29

Surface area-to-volume ratio

Back 29

As a cell's size increases, it's volume increases much more faster than it's surface area

Front 30

Resolution

Back 30

The minimum distance two points can be apart and still be distinguished as two separate points

Front 31

Prokaryote

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The simplest organisms, and most of their genetic materiel lies in a singular cellular molecule of DNA

Front 32

Nucleoid

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The center of the cell

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Cytoplasm

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Fills the interior of the cell and contains all of the sugars, amino acids, and proteins the cell uses to carry out its everyday activities

Front 34

Organelles

Back 34

In the cytoplasm and are specialized membrane-bounded structures.

Front 35

Cystol

Back 35

Organic molecules and ions in solution of the cytoplasm

Front 36

Plasma Membrane

Back 36

Encloses a cell and separates its contents from its surroundings

Front 37

Cell Wall

Back 37

A rigid cell wall that surrounds the plasma membrane. It has no distinct interior compartments

Front 38

Ribosomes

Back 38

Found in prokaryotic cells and carry out protein synthesis

Front 39

Endomembrane System

Back 39

Weaves through the cell's interior and by numerous organelles

Front 40

Panspermia

Back 40

1. The earth formed as a hot mass of molten rock 4.5 BYA 2. Life arose from these early waters 3. Life may have infected the earth from another planet

Front 41

Reducing Atmosphere

Back 41

Miller and Urey did an experiment that reproduced the early atmosphere and small organic molecules were in the experiment

Front 42

Polymers

Back 42

Form through a concentration through: 1. Evaporation of solution near hot springs 2. Freezing and concentration of solution in cold environments 3. Absorption onto charged mineral surfaces

Front 43

Proteinoid Microspheres

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1. Are selectively permeable 2. Have different metabolism inside compared to outside 3. Grow 4. May move if it has ATP 4. No heredity materiel

Front 44

Microfossils

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Fossilized forms of microscopic life

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Stromatolites

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Mats of cyanobacteriel cells that trap minerals

Front 46

Biomarkers

Back 46

Organic molecules of biological origin

Front 47

Prokaryotic Cells have:

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1. Genetic materiel in the nucleoid 2. Cytoplasm 3. Plasma membrane 4. Cell wall 5. Ribosomes 6. No membrane-bound organelles 7. No membrane-bound nucleus

Front 48

Bacteria

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1. Most abundant organisms on earth 2. Take nitrogen from the air, and recycle Carbon and Sulfur 3. Do a lot of the world's photosynthesis 4. Causes diseases 5. Diverse

Front 49

Archaea

Back 49

Prokatyotes that are more closely related to eukaryotes

Front 50

Archaea: Methanogens

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Use H2 to reduce CO2 and swamp gas, they are anaerobics that live in swamps

Front 51

Archaea: Extemophiles

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Thermophiles: High temperatures Halophiles: High salt Acidophiles: Low pH

Front 52

Archaea: Nonextreme Archaea

Back 52

Grow in same environments as bacteria

Front 53

Eukaryotic Cells

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1. Have a membrane bound nucleus 2. Are more complex than prokaryotic cells 3. Divide many cellular functions within organelles and the endomembrane system 4. Have a cytoskeleton for support and to maintain a cellular structure

Front 54

4 Eukaryotic Kingdoms

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1. Protista 2. Fungi 3. Plantae 4. Animalia

Front 55

Protista

Back 55

1. Unicellular with a few multicellular organisms 2. Not monophyletic

Front 56

Fungi, Plantae, Animalia

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1. Mostly multicellular organisms 2. Each has a different evolutionary line derived from a unicellular protist

Front 57

Compartmentalization

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Allows for more subcellular specialization

Front 58

Multicellularity

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Allows for differentieation of cells into tissues

Front 59

Sexual Reproduction

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Allows for greater genetic diversity

Front 60

Nucleus of a Eukaryotic Cells

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1. Stores the genetic materiel of the cell in the form of multiple, linear chromosomes 2. Surrounded by a nuclear envelope composed of 2 bilayers 3. In the chromosomes, DNA is organized with proteins to form chromatin

Front 61

Mitochondria

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1. Organelles present in all types of eukaryotic cells 2. Have metabolism enzymes for transferring the energy within macromolecules to ATP

Front 62

Endosymbiosis

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1. Proposal that eukaryotic organelles evolved through a symbiotic relationship 2. One cell covers over a second cell and a symbiotic relationship developed 3. Mitochondria and chloroplasts are though to have evolved this way

Front 63

Darwin

Back 63

Evolution is descent with modification

Front 64

Evolution

Back 64

Changes through time. 1. Species accumulate difference 2. Descendents differ from their ancestors 3. New species arise from existing ones

Front 65

Natural Selection

Back 65

Proposed by Darwin as the mechanism of evolution 1. Individuals have specific inherited characteristics 2. They produce more surviving offspring 3. The population includes more individuals with these specific characteristics 4. The population evolves and is better adapted to its present environment

Front 66

Godfrey Hardy and Wilhelm Weinberg

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The original proportions of the genotypes in a population will remain constant from generation to generation as long as five assumptions are met

Front 67

Hardy-Weinberg Principle 5 assumptions

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1. No mutation takes place 2. migration of genes 3. Random mating is occurring 4. A large population size 5. No selection (these conditions are rarely met)

Front 68

Non Hardy-Weinberg Populations:

Back 68

1. Mutation 2. Gene Flow 3. Non-Random Mating 4. Genetic Drift 5. Selection

Front 69

Mutation

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A change in a cell's DNA 1. Has little effect on the Hardy-Weinberg proportions of common alleles. 2. Ultimate source of genetic variation

Front 70

Gene Flow

Back 70

A movement of alleles from one population to another 1. Can be a powerful thing for change 2. Or can homogenize the allele frequencies

Front 71

Genetic Drift and ex.

Back 71

In small populations, individuals that carry a particular allele may leave more descendants than other individuals leave, just by chance. Over time, a series of chance occurrences can cause an allele to become more or less common in a population. ex. Anolis lizards and dewlap color

Front 72

Founders Effect

Back 72

Allele frequencies change as a result of the migration of a small subgroup of population.

Front 73

Bottleneck Effect

Back 73

The bottleneck effect is a change in allele frequency following a dramatic reduction in the size of a population.

Front 74

Artificial Selection

Back 74

A breeder mates with another of their kind for desired characteristics

Front 75

Natural Selection

Back 75

Environmental conditions determine which individuals in a population produce the most offspring

Front 76

Natural Selection 5 Parts:

Back 76

1. Variation exists in populations (there are giraffes with long necks and giraffes with short necks)
2. Over-production of offspring (more offspring than the environment can support) (the giraffes with long necks are reproducing rapidly)
3. Competition (the giraffes with long necks are able to reach the food)
4. Differential survival (adaptations: successful traits) (they can reach the food, therefore the ones with short necks slowly begin to die off)
5. Differential reproduction (adaptations become more common in population) (the long necks begin to reproduce and are more common in the population

Front 77

Fitness

Back 77

A phenotype with greater fitness increases it's frequency in a population (fitness meaning most well adapted/fit to environment, most fit given a value of 1)

Front 78

Fitness is a combination of:

Back 78

1. Survival 2. Mating success 3. Number of offspring per mating that survive

Front 79

Oscillating Selection and ex.

Back 79

Selection favors one phenotype at one point, and a different phenotype at another time ex. Galapagos Islands ground finches: Wet conditions favor big beaks, dry conditions favor small beaks

Front 80

Hertozygote advantage

Back 80

Keeps harmful alleles in a population ex. Sickle Cell Anemia, homozygous recessive phenotype: you have severe anemia

Front 81

Homozygous Dominant Phenotype

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No anemia; you can get malaria

Front 82

Heterozygous Phenotype

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No anemia; You will not get malaria

Front 83

Disruptive Selection and ex.

Back 83

When individuals at the outer ends of the curve have higher fitness than individuals near the middle of the curve (eliminates intermediate types) Ex. A population of birds might split into two groups one with smaller beaks and one with large beaks depending on the sides of the seeds.

Front 84

Directional Selection and ex.

Back 84

When individuals at one end of the curve have higher fitness than individuals in the middle or at the end (Eliminates one extreme from all the phenotypes) ex. Negative phototaxis in Drosophila) Food affecting individual fitness

Front 85

Stabilizing Selection and ex.

Back 85

When individuals near the center of the curve have higher fitness than individuals at either end (eliminates both extremes) ex. The mass of human infants at birth

Front 86

High Predation Environment

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Males display dark colors, tend to be small, and produce at a younger age

Front 87

Low Predation Environment

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Males display bright colors, have a larger number of spots, and tend to be more successful at defending their territories

Front 88

Pleiotropy

Back 88

Set limits on how much a phenotype can be altered

Front 89

Evidence of natural selection Peter and Rosemary Grant with ground finches

Back 89

Found beak depth variation among members of the population, and the average beak depth changed from one year to the next in a predictable fashion. Droughts: Birds with deeper, more powerful breaks survived better Normal rains: Average beak depth decreased its original size

Front 90

Biston Betularia

Back 90

Peppered moths, when the environment changes natural selection often favors different traits in a species. 1. Light gray with black specks became jet black. 2. Black ones have the dominant allele, and this allele was rare

Front 91

J. W Tutt

Back 91

Hypothesized that light-colored moths declined because of predation and light moths were easily seen by birds or darkened into sooty trees

Front 92

Bernard Kettlewell

Back 92

Tested the moth hypothesis. 1. Dark tree trunks = more dark-colored moths survive 2. Light tree trunks = more light-colored moths survive 3. When environmental conditions reverse, so does the selection pressure

Front 93

Industrial Melanism

Back 93

Phenomenon in which darker individuals are the strongest over lighter ones

Front 94

Pollution control

Back 94

Resulted in lichen growing on trees and bark color being lighter again. Light-colored pepper moths are now dominant in the population because of the industrial revolution

Front 95

Fossil Evidence of Evolution

Back 95

Researchers have found more than 20 fossils that document the evolution of modern whales from ancestors that walked on land. We can infer that ancient whales can be linked back to ancient artiodactyls (mammals that walk on land). The limb structure slowly changed over time and overtime reduced the hind limbs being used. Because the modern whales spend their time swimming in the ocean, they have no need for the hind limbs but this is why they are still born with the slits for the hind limbs.

Front 96

Anatomical Evidence of Evolution

Back 96

Homologous bones support the differently shaped front limbs of modern vertebrates. The front limbs of reptiles and birds are very similar to each other. This similarity indicates that the common ancestor of reptiles and birds lived more recently than the common ancestor of reptiles, birds, and mammals

Front 97

Molecular Evidence of Evolution

Back 97

At the molecular level, the universal genetic code and homologous chromosomes provide evidence of common descent. ex. Cytochrome c
This is a homologous protein that functions in cellular respiration. Similar versions of Cytochrome C are found in almost all living cells.

Front 98

Absolute Dating

Back 98

Age of fossils is estimated by rates of radioactive decay

Front 99

Relative Dating

Back 99

Position of the fossil in the sediment

Front 100

Half-Life

Back 100

The isotope's rate of decay

Front 101

Vestigial Structures

Back 101

Vestigial structures are inherited from ancestors but have lost much or all of their original function due to different selection pressures acting on the descent. ex. the appendix

Front 102

Biogeography

Back 102

The study of the geographic distribution of species, some plants and animals have similar appearance but they are not near each other

Front 103

Convergent Evolution

Back 103

The independent development of similar structures in organisms that are not directly related. It is usually seen in animals and plants that live in similar environments

Front 104

Marsupials

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Young are born in an immature condition and held in a pouch until they develop

Front 105

Placentals

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Young are not born until they can safely survive in the external environment

Front 106

Darwin noted on his voyage that:

Back 106

1. Islands were often missing plants and animals common on the continents 2. Species on the islands often diverged from relatives from other continents 3. Island species usually were more closely related to species on nearby continents

Front 107

Darwin concluded that:

Back 107

1. Species arrive on islands by spreading across the water 2. Spreading across from nearby areas is more likely than distant sources 3. Species that can fly, float, or swim can inhabit islands 4. Colonizers often evolve into many species

Front 108

The concept of species must have 2 phenomena:

Back 108

1. The distinctiveness of species happens together at a single location 2. The connection that exists among different populations belonging to the same species

Front 109

Speciation

Back 109

The process by which new species arise (one species turns into 2 species) either by: 1. Transformation of one species into another 2. The splitting of one ancestral species into two descendent species

Front 110

Sympatric Speciation

Back 110

The differentation of populations within a common geographic area into species and occurs without geographic isolation. Instantaneous speciation through polyploidy

Front 111

Species that happen together:

Back 111

1. Are distinctive things 2. Are phenotypically different 3. Use different parts of their habitat 4. Behave differently

Front 112

Population

Back 112

A group of individuals, usually a single species, occupying a given area at the same time

Front 113

Subspecies

Back 113

Withing a single species, individuals in populations that happen in different areas may be different from one another

Front 114

Earnst Mayr's Biological Species Concept

Back 114

Members of a population mate with each other and produce fertile offspring

Front 115

Reproductive Isolation

Back 115

When populations become reproductively isolated, they can evolve into two separate species, or a population whose members do not mate with each other or cannot produce fertile offspring. Reproductive isolation can develop in a variety of ways, including behavioral isolation, geographic isolation, and temporal isolation.

Front 116

Ecological Isolation

Back 116

Using different portions of the environment and they do not encounter each other ex. Lion and tiger

Front 117

Behavioral Isolation

Back 117

Two populations are capable of interbreeding develop differences in courtship rituals or other behaviors. ex. eastern and western meadowlarks

Front 118

Pheromones

Back 118

Chemical signals

Front 119

Temporal Isolation

Back 119

When two or more species reproduce at different times. ex. orchids living in the same rain forest

Front 120

Mechanical Isolation

Back 120

Structural differences between species prevent mating

Front 121

Prevention of gamete fusion

Back 121

Gametes of one species functions poorly with the gametes of another species or within the reproductive area of another species

Front 122

Postzygotic Isolation

Back 122

Prevents normal development into reproducing adults

Front 123

Hybridization

Back 123

Mating between two different species with a zygotet being formed

Front 124

Hybrids and ex.

Back 124

1. Do not develop into adults or fertile adults ex. mule

Front 125

Cladogenesis

Back 125

One ancestral species becomes divided into two descendant species

Front 126

Reinforcement

Back 126

Incomplete isolating mechanisms are reinforced by natural selection until they have completely worked

Front 127

Random Divergence

Back 127

May affect traits responsible for reproductive isolation; speciation may occur

Front 128

Anolis Lizards

Back 128

1. Ability to see dewlap depends on color and environment 2. Light color: reflects light in dark forest conditions 3. Dark color: More visible in bright glare of open habitats

Front 129

Polyploidy

Back 129

1. Reproductively isolated from all other members of it species 2. Individuals that have more than two sets of chromosomes 3. Plants with 4 sets of chromosomes can survive, but not be diploid individuals

Front 130

Allopolyploidy

Back 130

1. Two species hybridize 2. This results with one offspring having one copy of the chromosomes of each species 3. They are infertile and cannot reproduce with either species 4. They can reproduce asexually 5. Can become fertile if chromosomes spontaneously doubled

Front 131

Human Evolutionary Future

Back 131

1. Natural selection as an engine of evolutionary change 2. Human changes of our own gene pool

Front 132

Adaptive Radiations

Back 132

Closely related species that have recently evolved from a common ancestor by adapting to different parts of the environment

Front 133

Adaptive radiation occurs:

Back 133

1. In an environment with few other species and many resources 2. Galapagos islands 3 Catastrophic event leading to extinction of other species

Front 134

Key Innovation and ex.

Back 134

Evolved within a species allowing it to use resources or other things in the environment that were previously not accessible. It allows descendent species to adapt to new parts of the environment ex. Evolution of lungs in fish

Front 135

Character Displacement

Back 135

Natural selection in each species favors those individuals that use resources not used by other species 1. Greater fitness 2. Trait differences in resource use will increase in frequency over time 3. Species will diverge

Front 136

Alternative

Back 136

1. Adaptive radiation happens through repeated instances of sympatric speciation 2. Produces a set of species adapted to different habitats

Front 137

Adaptive Radiation Case 1: Hawaiin Drosophila

Back 137

1. 1,000 species of Drosophilla were found on Hawaiin islands 2. Diversity of morphological and behavioral traits 3. Empty niches resulted in fruit flies such as parasites

Front 138

Adaptive Radiation Case 2: Darwin's Finches

Back 138

1. Ancestors were exposed to different selective pressures 2. Geographic isolation on many islands 3. Diverse population and some evolved into separate species 4. Occupy different habitats

Front 139

Ground Finches

Back 139

1. Feed on seeds 2. Size of beak relates to size of the seed they eat

Front 140

Tree Finches

Back 140

1. All eat insects 2. One species uses a tool to get insects

Front 141

Vegetarian Finch

Back 141

Eats buds from branches

Front 142

Warbler Finches

Back 142

Eats insects from leaves and branches

Front 143

Adaptive Radiation Case 3: Lake Victoria cichild fishes

Back 143

1. Was home to over 300 species of cichlid fish until recently 2. Recent radiation 3. Colonized from the Nile River 4. Changes in water level encouraged species formation 5. Lake dry down 14,000 years ago

Front 144

Gradualism

Back 144

The accumulation of small changes

Front 145

Punctuated Equilibrium

Back 145

1. Long periods of no activity followed by rapid change 2. Proposed by Niles Eldridge and Stephen Gould in 1972

Front 146

Adaptation

Back 146

A genetic variation that is favored by selection and is clear as a trait that provides an advantage to an organism in a particular environment.

Front 147

Random Fertilization

Back 147

1. Each gamete is 1 of 8 million possibilities due to independent assortment 2. Adds to genetic variation because any sperm can fuse with any unfertilized egg