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109 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Primary purposes of the respiratory tract (4 + notable mention) |
1- exchange of gases (02, co2) 2- regulation of body pH 3- protection from inhaled pathogens and irritating substances 4- vocalization (air moves across vocal cords=phonation) * water & heat loss; inhale heats up and adds water to air; exhale lose all that heat and water; loose up to 20% body heat from breathing |
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External Respiration (4 parts) |
1. Exchange I (air into lungs) 2. Exchange II (lung to blood) 3. Transport in Blood 4. Exchange III (blood to cells) |
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Cellular Respiration (equation) |
O2 -> Co2 + ATP |
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Upper Respiratory Tract anatomy (4) |
1. mouth/ nostrils 2. Nasal cavity - turbinate structures 3. Pharynx- esutachian tubes 4. Larynx - contains vocal cords |
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Lower Respiratory Tract anatomy (4) |
1. Trachea 2. Bronchi 3. Bronchioles - smallest airway divisions 4. Alveoli - single layer of epithelium - Type I alveolar cells (95%) - gas exchange - Type II alveolar cells (5%)- secrete surfactant |
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The Thoracic Cavity |
- enclosed by ribs, intercostal muscles, and diaphragm - 3 'sacs': pericardial + pleural (rib, side) |
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Plueral Sacs |
-enclosed lungs -double walled sac filled with plueral fluid - allow lungs to move - keeps lungs tight against thoracic wall based on volume and pressure; ^V-dec P |
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Breathing |
actuated by Vacuum --thoracic cavity |
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Respiratory cycle |
1 inhale, 1 exhale |
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inspiration |
- alveolar pressure decreases, air flows in - contraction of muscles (intercostal,20-40%) and Diaphragm (60-75%) |
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Expiration |
- typically passive, elastic recoil of lungs |
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active respriation |
-use more muscles to control breathing - choose to breath |
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four volumes to know |
tidal volume inspiratory reserve (big air in) expiratory reserve (big air out) Residual Volumes |
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Capacity |
sum of 2+ lung volumes - decrease with age |
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Airway resistance influenced by: |
length, viscosity and radius - resistance found in trachea & bronchi |
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Bronchoconstriction (What induces this?) |
-bronchioles constriction
-ACh, histamine (parasympathetic) |
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Bronchodialation |
- bronchioles dilate - CO2, epinephrine (sympathetic) want oxygen happens in exercise |
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Boyle's gas law |
P1V1 = P2V2 |
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Body creates pressure by _________________ |
changing thoracic volume |
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6 basic steps of gas exchange (Starting with alveoli cap) |
1. O2 enters capillaries from alveoli 2. blood to heart and body 3. O2 exchange at capillary bed by tissue 4. CO2 exchange at capillary bed at tissue 5. travel to heart 6. CO@ lungs to be exhaled |
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Gas diffuses DOWN concentration gradient (2) |
- fick's law of diffusion (SA, conc, membrane perm&thickness) - partial pressure (mmHg) |
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Hypoxia |
lack of O2 |
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hypercapnea |
excess of CO2 |
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chemoreceptors monitor blood: (3) |
Po2, Pco2, pH
(high CO2= low pH) |
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partial pressure of O2 and CO2 at atmosphere |
dry air= 760 mmHg Po2= 160 mmHg Pco2= .25 mmHg |
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partial pressure of O2 and CO2 at alveoli exchagne |
Po2= 100 Pco2= 40 |
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partial pressure of O2 and CO2 in arterial blood |
Po2= 100 Pco2= 40 |
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partial pressure of O2 and CO2 at cells |
Po2 <= 40 Pco2 >= 46 |
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partial pressure of O2 and CO2 in venous blood |
Po2 <= 40 Pco2 >= 46 |
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CO2 is ___________ more soluble in aqueous solutions than O2 |
20 times |
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oxyhemoglobin (HbO2) |
hemoglobin carrying O2 in blood |
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Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve |
looks at the % saturation of hemoglobin -the % Hb binding sites bound to O2 |
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What is the name of this curve? |
Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve |
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Why is 40 mmHg important on the Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve? |
it is the Po2 at cells and in venous blood only 75% leaves blood/heme, 25% stays as a reserve |
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Why is 100 mmHg important on the Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve? |
it is the Po2 at alveoli (100% saturated) |
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Why is 60 - 100 mmHg important on the Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve? |
almost saturated - important so body can have a drop in partial pressure |
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3 things alter the Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve |
1. temp 3.metabolites |
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2,3 DPG: |
triggered by chronic hypoxia made by RBC; made to help shift Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve |
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Left Shift of Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve |
1. Decrease temp 2. decrease 2,3 DPG 3. decrease H+ (increase pH) 4. decrease CO |
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Right Shift of Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve (more common) |
reduced affinity 1. increase temp 2. increase 2,3 DPG 3. increase H+ |
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Example of a right shift on the Oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve |
exercise causes and increase in temperature which causes hemoglobin to release O2 more easily |
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3 ways to transport CO2 ( and list % of how often each is done) |
1. dissolved in plasma - 7% 2. converted to bicarbonate (HCO3-) - 70% -- catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase (CA) 3. binds to hemoglobin - 23% --(carbaminohemoglobin)
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CO2 transport at cell (5 steps) |
1. pressure pulls CO2 out of cell 2. Dissolved in plasma (7%) 3. binding to hemoglobing 4. CA converts it to carbaminohemoglobin 5. H+ binds to Hb (HbH) and bicarbonate leaves RBC by chloride shift |
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CO2 removal at lungs (pulmonary exchange) 4 steps |
1. dissolved CO2 in plasma diffuses into alveoli 2. decrease in plasma CO2 allows CO2 in RBC to move out 3. Chloride shift reverses; HCO3- returns to RBC 4. HCO3- converted back to CO2 |
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CO2-> CHO3- equation |
CO2 + H20 <--CA--> H2CO3 <-> HCO3- + H+ |
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CO2 transport from cell to RBC (5steps) |
1. Pressure pulls CO2 out of cell 2. Dissolved in plasma (7%) 3. Binding to hemoglobin (23%) 4. CA converts it to carbaminohemoglobin (70%) 5. H+ binds to Hb and bicarbonate leaves RBC (via chloride shift) |
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CO2 removal at lungs (4) |
1. Dissolved CO2 in plasma diffuses into alveoli 2. Decrease in plasma CO2 in RBC to move out 3. Chloride shift reverses- HCO3- returns to RBC 4. HCO3- converted back to CO2 |
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5 functions of the kidney |
Regulate ECF, BP, & osmolarity Maintain ion balance (Ca, Na, K, Cl) Regulate pH (H+, HCO3-) Excrete wastes Production of hormones (EPO, renin) |
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Renal external anatomy |
Typically smooth and bean-shaped (except right horse & cow) Located dorsal to GI and lateral to lumbar spinal column (except cow both on right) |
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Ureters definition |
Carry urine to the bladder - enter at oblique angle -prevents backflow |
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Bladder |
Holds Urine -controlled by voluntary sphincter -urine exits via urethra -under autonomic control bc of smooth muscle |
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Renal internal anatomy |
Cortex (Both have nephrons) Medulla Major and minor calyxes |
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Nephron |
Functional unit of kidney Has two parts: - vascular - tubular |
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Nephron vascular anatomy (5) |
Afferent arteriole Glomerulus (cap. bed) Efferent arteriole Vasa recta (medulla) ---(Both cap. bed) Peritubular capillaries (cortex) |
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Nephron tubular anatomy (5) |
Bow and capsule Proximal convoluted tubule (PDT) Loop of Henle (thin descending and thick ascending) Distal convoluted tubule (DCT) Collecting duct (CD) |
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Blood filtration (4) |
Filtration Reabsorption Secretion Excretion |
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1. Filtration (blood filtration)
----(3barriers) |
Occurs only in renal corpuscle (bowmans capsule& glomerus)
3 barriers: ---capillary endothelium- mesangial cells (constrict) ---basal lamina --- capsule epithelium (podocytes, filtration slits) |
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Why does only 1/5 of plasma filter into nephron |
to keep blood moving. if too much plasma is taken out of blood, blood thickens and doesn't move within the body |
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Filtration is driven by 3 pressures |
hydrostatic colloid osmotic fluid net pressure is 10mmHg |
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glomerular filtration rate (GFR) |
180L/day total plasma volume = 3L |
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what does Filtration (in the renal corpuscle) exchange |
water, solutes, salts, sugars, bicarbonate, sodium etc. |
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Local autoregulation of the GFR (2) |
Myogenic response and tubuloglomerular feedback |
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myogenic response- Local autoregulation of the GFR |
contract back after stretching (slow GFR) |
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Tubuloglomerular feedback - Local autoregulation of the GFR |
Macula densa (tubule epithelium) and Juxtaglomerular cells (JG cells; afferent arteriole) detect changes in fluid comp in tubule cause vasoconstriciton |
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Example steps of Local autoregulation of the GFR (5) |
1. increase GFR at bowman's capsule 2/3. increase GFR at PCT, loop of Henle 4. increase GFR sensed by macula densa cells via salt 5. macula densa 'talk'to JG cells on afferent arteriole - cause vasoconstriction |
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Reabsorption mostly in |
proximal tubule (PCT) |
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Reabsorption in: PCT Thin descending loop of Henle Thick ascending loop of Henle DCT CD |
PCT: sugars, AA, ions, vitamins, urea, water Thin descending loop of Henle: water Thick ascending loop of Henle: salt DCT: ions, water CD: ions, bicarbonate, water |
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Secretion removes solutes from: |
pertiubular capillaries |
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4 parameters of Fluid and Electrolyte balance |
fluid volume (ICF, ECF) Osmolarity [ions] pH |
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the multiple systems of Fluid and Electrolyte Balance |
renal respiratory cardiovascular behavior***-thirst |
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Water in: |
consume metaboli |
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water out |
urine sweat respiration feces |
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Water is _______ abundant molecule in body |
MOST |
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law of mass balance |
water in = water out **water loss impacts BP and osmolarity |
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Kidneys conserve __________ |
volume; CANNOT replace volume |
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Osmolarity changes in the nephron: thin descending loop of Henle |
fluid leaves PCT= more concentrated
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Osmolarity changes in the nephron: thick ascending loop of Henle |
removal of solutes (salt) = less concentrated |
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Osmolarity changes in the nephron: DC |
hormones regulate permeability of water and solutes |
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Vasopressin/ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH) |
controles placement of aquaporins which are stored in vesicles of the collecting duct wall. |
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3 stimuli for ADH/Vasopressin secretion |
plasma osmolarity (280) blood volume blood pressure |
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Sodium Balance and Osmolarity |
total amt of Na = main influence on ECF volume. high salt intake = ADH secretion and thirst Aldosterone (from adrenal gland):control of Na balance; |
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RAA System (Renin-Angiotensin - Aldosterone System) |
stimulates relase of aldosterone goal: to maintain/ increase BP |
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steps of RAA system (5) |
1. low systemic BP 2. JG cells in kidney release renin 3. Angiotensinogen from liver cleaved by renin -> ANG I *** effects: symp. NS increase(vasoconstriction), Aldosterone secreted (increase Na reabsorption), ADH secreted (increase water reabsorption) 5. normal BP |
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ANP & BNP released with _________; and enhance _________________ |
released with increased blood volume; and enhance Na and urinary water loss |
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Functions of ANP & BNP |
increase GFR inhibit tubular reabsorption of salt inhibit renin, aldosterone, ADH |
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Blood pH range |
7.35-7.45 *** 7.4*** |
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disruptions of pH: 2 |
Acidosis (dec pH, ^ [H+]) Alkalosis (^pH, dec [H+]) |
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Impact of acid-base disruption |
Nervous system protein structure ( Na-K- ATPase; PFK) Oxyhemoglobin Curve |
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Acid / Base sources |
Acids: food and metabolic processes; aerobic respiration (CO2) Basic: HCO3-; not typically a problem |
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3 defense mechanisms for pH homeostasis |
buffers lungs kidneys |
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Buffers: defense mechanisms for pH homeostasis |
moderates changes in pH intracellular: proteins, Hb, HPO4- extracellular: bicarbonate |
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Lungs: defense mechanisms for pH homeostasis |
change in plasma Co2 affects both H+ and HCO3- 75% of problems fixed with this quick fix |
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hypoventilation: |
CO2 builds up-> equation shifts to right; acidosis |
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hyperventilation: |
increase breathing= CO2 leaves faster, equation shifts left; becomes alkalosis |
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bicarbonate equation |
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Kidneys: defense mechanisms for pH homeostasis in the PCT |
goal is to reabsorb bicarbonate and secrete H+ two pathways: conversion of bicarbonate and glutamine metabolism |
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Kidneys: defense mechanisms for pH homeostasis in the CD |
Type A Intercalated Cells: fix acidosis by reabsorbing bicarbonate and excreting H+ Type B Intercalated Cells: fix alkalosis by excreting bicarbonate and reabsorbing H+ |
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Type A and B Intercalated Cells use these ports |
H-K antiport H-ATPase HCO3- Cl antiport |
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3 main functions of immune system |
1. protect body from pathogens and antigens 2. remove dead/damaged cells 3. recognize and remove abnormal cells |
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incorrect immune response: |
autonomic disease |
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overactive immune response: |
allergies |
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lack of immune response: |
Immune detecting (aids) |
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Typical Pathogens: |
bacteria and virus |
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The Immune Response: 4 |
1. detection and ID 2. communication 3. recruitment and coordination 4. destruction/ suppression |
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chemical signals of immune response: |
antibodies and cytokines |
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3 Defense lines |
1. physical, chemical barriers 2. innate immunity (at birth) 3. acquired immunity |
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Cytokines: |
protein messengers than affect the activity or growth of other cells and create the inflammatory response. Ex: histamine, bradykinin, interleukines |
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Inflammation: |
created when macrophages release cytokines; immune cells gather. capillary permeability increases, fever/heat occurs |
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Histamine |
released by mast cells/basophils cause edema and dilation of blood vessels. |
