Anatomy And Physiology Unit 5

Front 1

Cytoplasm

Back 1

Cytosol

- solvent (water)

- solute: salts (Na, K, Cl, etc.), mono&di-glycerides, proteins

Organelles

- little organs

Front 2

Mitochondria Function

Back 2

Energy Production

Front 3

Cytoskeleton function

Back 3

Structure

Front 4

Ribosome, Rough ER, peroxisome, proteasome function

Back 4

Storage and Digestion

Front 5

The nucleus has a system of ___ on surface

Back 5

Pores

Front 6

Mitochondria

Back 6

Energy Producing organelle in cells

- higher energy needs = more mitochondria (skin cells vs muscles etc)

Front 7

Mitochondria Makeup

Back 7

- outer membrane

- inner membrane (extensively folded to increase surface area)

- intermembrane space (between outer and inner membrane)

- Matrix (inside intermembrane)

-has its own DNA (mtDNA) passed from mother to daughter, mother to son (not father)

Front 8

Endothermic/Endergonic/Anabolic

Back 8

Requires energy, absorbs energy into chemical bonds

Front 9

Exothermic/Exergonic/Catabolic

Back 9

Does work, releases energy from chemical bonds

Front 10

ATP Cycle

Back 10

1. Simple molecules: glucose, amino acids, glycerol, fatty acids

2. anabolic reactions combine simple mol. to form complex mol. this requires energy from ATP (stores in bonds)

3. Complex Molecules: Glycogen, Proteins, Triglycerides

4. Catabolic Reactions break complex mol. to form simple mol. this releases the energy stored in bonds (and repeats the process)

Front 11

Burning Vs. Metabolism

Back 11

Both have the same goal, released energy is stored as ATP therefore allowing the building of complex molecules

In burning, all energy is released in one step.

In metabolism, energy is released in small, controlled steps.

- most energy is captured and stored in ATP

- Uncaptured is released as heat

- works better in the body (we don't explode)

Front 12

How does each system interact to maintain energy homeostasis

Back 12

- Digestive: absorbs nutrients

- Respiratory: brings O2 in and blows CO2 out

- Circulatory: carries nutrients and O2 to cells, waste, and CO2 away

- Excretory: Rids body of waste

Front 13

Cellular Respiration

Back 13

The oxidation of glucose to produce ATP

C6H12O6 + 6O2 --> 6CO2 + 6H2O + 26-38 ATP

Four-step process:

1. glycolysis

2. acetyl-CoA formation

3. Citric Acid Cycle

4. Electron transport chain

Front 14

Glucose

Back 14

C6H12O6

- destroyed in cellular respiration

Front 15

ATP (and H20/CO2)

Back 15

- High energy phosphate bonds

- recycled in cellular respiration

Front 16

3 Carbon Sugars (pyruvic acid/pyruvate and lactic acid/lactate)

Back 16

- two major players

- result of breaking glucose

- destroyed by cellular respiration

Front 17

Coenzyme A (CoA)

Back 17

Two Carbon Carrier

- two carbon molecule = acetyl group (acetate)

- shovels the acetate molecules into citric acid cycle "furnace"

- Coenzyme, not consumed

- recycled in cellular respiration

Front 18

Proton and Electron Carriers

Back 18

Carry H+ and e- to electron transport chain

- FAD +2H+ (+2e-) <--> FADH2

- NAD+ + 2H+ (+2e-) <--> NADH+H+

These are cofactors: not consumed in metabolic reactions and recycled in cellular resp.

Front 19

Glucose is ___ to make ___

Back 19

destroyed to make 6 CO2 molecules

Front 20

ATP is ___ to make ___

Back 20

Recycled to make ADP + Pi/ATP

Front 21

Pyruvic Acid is ____ to make ___

Back 21

Destroyed to make CO2+CH3COO-

Front 22

Lactic Acid is ___ to make ___

Back 22

Destroyed to make ethanol

Front 23

Coenzyme A is ___ to make___

Back 23

Recycled to make acetyl-CoA/CoA-SH

Front 24

FAD/NAD+ is ___ to make ___

Back 24

FAD/FADH2 / NAD+/NADH+H+

Front 25

Step 1: Glycosis

Back 25

In cytosol

- splits glucose

- energy investment phase: requires 2 ATP

- Energy payoff phase: generates 4 ATP

- Produces: 2 ATP (net), 2 pyruvic acids, 4 protons (H+), and 4 Electrons (e-)

Front 26

Inputs of Glycosis

Back 26

1 glucose, 2 ATP, 2 NAD+, 2 inorganic phosphates (PO4-3 or Pi)

Front 27

Products of Glycolysis

Back 27

4 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate (glucose is destroyed)

Front 28

Glycolysis Net Output per Glucose

Back 28

2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 Pyruvate

(pyruvate then enters the next step, the formation of acetyl-coenzyme A)

Front 29

Aerobic vs. Anaerobic

Back 29

Need O2 to continue

- aerobic resp.

- 30-32 ATP

No O2?

- anaerobic Resp.

- process stops, dead end

Front 30

Step 2: Acetyl CoA Formation

Back 30

In mitochondrial Matrix

- starts with pyruvic acid

- requires: CoA and O2

- produces: 1 Acetyl CoA, 1CO2, 2 NADH + 2H+

Front 31

If O2 is not present in Step 2...

Back 31

Pyruvate becomes lactate

Front 32

Acetyl CoA Formation Description

Back 32

The acetyl group binds to coenzyme A with a disulfide linkage

the hydrogen attached to NAD+ and the proton go to the electron transport chain

CoA delivers and releases the two-carbon acetyl group to the citric acid cycle and can then be reused

Front 33

Step 3: Citric Acid Cycle

Back 33

In mitochondrial Matrix

- starts with acetyl CoA

- CoA is reused in step 2

- produces (per "turn"): 2 CO2, 3 NADH + 3H+, 1 FADH2, 1 ATP

- produces (per glucose): 4 CO2, 6 NADH + 6H+, 2FADH2, 2 ATP

Front 34

Step 4: Electron Transport Chain

Back 34

In mitochondria, transmembrane enzymes on inner membrane

- NADH+H+ and NADH2 bring protons and electrons

- electrons stripped from protons, play hide-and-seek

- protons pumped into intermembrane space, run-down concentration gradient, drive ATP production

- 22-23 ATP produced (depending on efficiency)

Front 35

Cellular Respiration - Summary

Back 35

-Starts with glucose in cytosol

- glycolysis splits glucose into 2 pyruvic acids

- if no O2, pyruvic acids to lactic acids, dead end

- if O2, onto next step

- C removed from each pyruvic acid to make 2 acetyl groups attach to CoA, form 2 Acetyl CoA

- CoA delivers acetyl groups to citric acid cycle, acetyl groups taken apart

- NAD and FAD+ capture/carry H+ and e- from each step to electron chain H+ and e- moved around to drive ATP production

Front 36

Glycogen as Energy Storage

Back 36

Long, branching chains of glucose

- glucose quick/easy in, quick/easy out, readily available

- mostly stored in liver and muscle (70-100g/280-400cal and 200-400g/800-1600cal respectively)

Front 37

Lipids as Energy Storage

Back 37

Excess glucose and fats are stored as triglycerides

- break down the triglycerides to use glucose for ATP

- Ketones and acids made as by-products (can result in ketoacidosis)

Front 38

Gluconeogenesis

Back 38

"create new glucose"

- glucose from a fat or protein source (not carbs)

- gluconeogenesis is essentially glycolysis in reverse (we take 2 and 3 carbon molecules and build a 6 carbon glucose out of them)

Front 39

Cytoskeleton

Back 39

Structure for the cell

Front 40

Three sizes of structural proteins

Back 40

1. Microfilaments (actin, smallest, 7 nm, two wound strands)

2. Intermediate filaments (keratin, vimetin, neurofilaments, lamins, many more, 8-12 nm, several wound strands, one of several proteins)

3. Microtubules (tublin plus microtubule-associated proteins aka MAPs, largest 25 nm, hollow)

Front 41

Microtubules

Back 41

Important in cell division

- two proteins joined together into a dimer (alpha tublin and Beta tublin)

- the tublin dimers are then assembled into a hollow tube about 25 nm in diameter (40,000 of these would fit side by side on the milimeter marking of a ruler)

- the microtubule is stabilized by the addition of microtubule associated proteins (typically, they are assembled at the other

Front 42

Centrosome

Back 42

Centrosomes are the heart of a spindle apparatus

- root from which microtubules grow

- microtubule organizing center (MTOC)

- 2 centrioles + pericentriolar material

- the spindle app. is the spiky cluster of microtubules that is essential for the separation of genetic material (chromosomes) during cell division

Front 43

Intermediate Filaments

Back 43

Made from a wide variety of proteins (keratin in skin cells etc..)

Front 44

Microfilaments

Back 44

Actin Filaments

- actin filaments consist of single actin molecules twisted together into a double strand (filaments actin, f-actin)

Microvilli have a core of microfilaments

- stable structures on the surface of cells are supported by the cytoskeleton

- microvilli on the surface of intestinal cells

Front 45

Microvilli

Back 45

Absorptive cells need lots of surface area

- many finger-like projections called microvilli

- each actin microfilament core

Front 46

Cilia

Back 46

One of two kinds of motile extensions on the surface of the cells

- hair-like extensions on the cell surface

- move fluids across the surface of a cell fixed in place as part of an epithelium tissue

- lots of human cells have cilia

- rowing motion (power stroke and return stroke)

Front 47

Flagella

Back 47

One of two kinds of motile extensions on the surface of the cells

- used to move the cell through a fluid environment

- only the human sperm has a flagellum

- common in pathogenic organisms (clostridium salmonella, giardia)

- wavelike whipping

Front 48

Flagella and Cilia

Back 48

Both have same basic microtubule structure

- at base, 9 triplets

- in body, 9 doubles and two central singles

Only difference - one moves and one stays put

Front 49

The Spliceosome

Back 49

Edits RNA

- for a loop of unwanted RNA (intron) and then cut it out, splicing together the cut ends

- this creates the final form of mRNA (exons)

Front 50

Ribosomes

Back 50

Site of protein synthesis

- two subunits join to form ribosome (6OS and 4OS)

- shape essential to proper function in making proteins

- found in cell either attached to surface of rough ER or as free ribosomes in cytoplasm

Front 51

Endoplasmic Reticulum

Back 51

Membranes inside (endo-) the cell cytoplasm forming a complex network (reticulum)

- two varieties, rough and smooth

Front 52

Smooth ER

Back 52

1. Lipid synthesis

2. toxin and cellular component processing

3. calcium storage (in muscle)

Front 53

Rough ER

Back 53

"rough" due to the presence of ribosomes

site of protein synthesis when the proteins are

- being exported from cell by exocytosis

- being inserted into cell mem. (e.g. by cell markers)

- being packaged inside lysosomes

Front 54

Golgi Complex

Back 54

Finish proteins made in the RER

- cis (entry) face

- trans (exit) face

- cisternae (sing. cisterna) in between

Proteins enter the cis face, process through Golgi, exit trans face in secretory vesicles, ready for export

- Golgi complex looks a bit like prof Golgi's moustache

Front 55

The Endomembrane System

Back 55

Taken together, these organelles form a continuous synthetic pathway from nuclear genetic code (DNA) to the three fates of exported proteins

- DNA transcribed into RNA in the nucleus

- RNA edited to mRNA in the spliceosome

- mRNA translated into protein in the RER

- Protein transferred to Golgi apparatus and packaged, where it takes one of three pathways (secretory vesicle, lysosome, protein inserted into membrane)

Front 56

Storage and Digestion Organelles

Back 56

Keep potentially toxic substances and enzymes away from the other cell components

- this usually means enclosing the dangerous substance in a membrane

- secretory

- droplets for storage of lipids

Front 57

Storage Organelle

Back 57

Some types of SER

Front 58

Digestive Organelle(s)

Back 58

Lysosomes

Peroxisomes

Proteasomes

Front 59

Lysosomes

Back 59

Membrane-bound

- contain oxidases

- cells "garbage can"

Have an acid pH

- this is maintained by proton (H+) pumps that concentrate H+ ions about 100x

- pH inside is 5; pH of cytoplasm is 7.4

- Contain enzymes that work best at acid pH

- break down most proteins and other substances if they are dangerous or no longer needed

Front 60

Peroxisomes

Back 60

Membrane-bound

- contain oxidases

- make H2O2, B-oxidize fatty acids

- Contain a crystalline core which is a collection of enzymes

- surrounded by a membrane so it doesn't damage the cell

Front 61

Proteasomes

Back 61

Break down foreign, mis-folded, or temporary proteins

- Digestive organelles that breaks down proteins that are no longer needed

- defective protein is "grabbed" by a complex called ubiquitin

- ubiquitin is the "hand" that feeds the protein into the top of the "protein shredder"

- amino acids come out the bottom end of the shredder

Front 62

Peroxisomes Contain...

Back 62

hydrogen peroxide (H2O2)

- Makes free radical oxygen which is highly reactive with many substances

- these are especially useful for breaking down lipids

- an enzyme called catalase breaks down 2H2O2 into 2H2O and O

Front 63

Nucleolus

Back 63

Produces ribosomes

Front 64

In general ___ reactions build large molecules

Back 64

Anabolic

Front 65

Reactions which require the input of more net energy to take place are called:

Back 65

Endergonic

Front 66

What molecules are destroyed in the process of cellular respiration

Back 66

Glucose, acetate, pyruvic/lactic acid

Front 67

What molecule involved in cellular respiration is considered the ultimate product of the process?

Back 67

ATP

Front 68

NADH plays a key role in:

Back 68

Cellular respiration in mitochondria

Front 69

This molecule is a carrier for hydrogen atoms.

Back 69

FAD/NAD

Front 70

What is a 6 carbon sugar?

Back 70

glucose

Front 71

3 carbon molecules

Back 71

Lactate/pyruvate

Front 72

Athletes who are exerting themselves at maximum effort often deplete their oxygen. When this happens, _______________ builds up in the muscle tissues as a "dead end" in glucose metabolism.

Back 72

Lactate

Front 73

In the presence of oxygen, each glucose molecule produces a net of ____ ATP molecules. 2

Back 73

26-38

Front 74

By the end of the citric acid cycle, all six carbons from the original glucose molecule are "consumed" by pairing each one with oxygen to make:

Back 74

Carbon Dioxide

Front 75

Where are the enzymes and intermediates of the citric acid cycle found?

Back 75

in the cristae and matrix of mitochondria

Front 76

Mitochondria concentrate _______________ in the intermembrane space between the inner and outer mitochondrial membranes.

Back 76

protons

Front 77

A cell without mitochondria (for example, a bacterial cell) can make ______ ATP molecules from each glucose molecule by glycolysis.

Back 77

2

Front 78

You are running. Glycogen is broken down into glucose-6-phosphate which goes through the glycolytic, citric acid cycle and electron transport pathways and is turned into ATP.

This process is called:

Back 78

aerobic respiration

Front 79

We can store glucose in the form of glycogen, equivalent to about _________ food calories (Cal, kcal).

Back 79

2000

Front 80

Triglycerides are lipid molecules in which a glycerol backbone is connected to three:

Back 80

fatty acids

Front 81

In general, proteins made by free-floating ribosomes are ______________ the cell.

Back 81

retained by

Front 82

There are at least three different functions for the ________________. All three functional types look the same under the electron microscope so they have one name.

Back 82

SER

Front 83

This organelle, made up of RNA and protein, is a macromolecular machine that makes proteins using messenger RNA as a template

Back 83

Ribosomes

Front 84

Glycosylation

Phosphorylation

Geranylgeranylation

Farnesylation

describe chemical modifications that are applied to:

Back 84

Proteins

Front 85

Which organelle recycles worn out organelles?

Back 85

Lysosomes

Front 86

How many CO2 molecules are created in the whole process of cellular respiration?

Back 86

6

Front 87

When the amino group is removed when using proteins for energy, what does it become in the blood?

Back 87

Urea

Front 88

ATP Accounting Chart (products/atp of glycolysis, Acetyl CoA, and Krebs)

Back 88

Front 89

Last resort for energy in the body

Back 89

Protein Storage

Front 90

Microtubule Uses

Back 90

- "Railroad tracks", move vesicles and other large particles fromone end of the cell to the other

- structures called mitotic spindles which separate the genetic material during celldivision

- the core ofmovementorganelleslike thecilium or theflagellum

Front 91

centriole and its pericentriolar material are together called the

Back 91

centrosome

Front 92

Cytoskeleton made by a variety of proteins including keratin..

Back 92

Intermediate Filament

Front 93

Cytoskeleton made of actin

Back 93

Microfilament

- most flexible (in structure and in use)

- core of microvilli (a structure on the stop surface of the cell that increases cell surface area)

Front 94

Macromolecular Machines

Back 94

Spliceosomes and Ribosomes

Front 95

The main differences between Lysosomes, Peroxisomes, and Proteasomes...

Back 95

- Lysosomes are recycling bins for misfoldedor unwanted proteins; invaders who attemptto gain entry to the cell by endocytosis; ormetabolic toxins that could do damage to thecell

- peroxisome is more of a lipidbreakdown organelle

- breaks down proteins into their amino acids

Front 96

The process of making and breaking bonds to release, capture, store, and then useenergy inside our body cells is called

Back 96

metabolism

Front 97

putting smaller molecules together to make larger molecules; requires energy, it is

Back 97

anabolic

Front 98

“shovel” that picks up a 2-carbon moleculeand deposits it in the citric acid cycle.

Back 98

CoA

Front 99

“buckets” that carryprotons (H+) and electrons (e–)

Back 99

FAD and NAD+

Front 100

Once “loaded” with protons and electrons,FAD becomes ___ and NAD+ becomes ___

Back 100

FADH2, NADH + H+.