By the end of the twelfth century, as rivalries among the noble families led to almost constant civil war, centralizing forces again asserted themselves. A powerful noble from a warrior clan named Minamoto Yoritomo defeated several rivals and set up his power base on the Kamakura. To strengthen the state, he created a more centralized government under a powerful military leader known as the shogun. The shogun attempted to increase the powers of the central government while reducing rival aristocratic clans to vassals’ status. The shogunate system served as the political system in Japan until the second half of the nineteenth century. The system worked effectively, and it was fortunate that it did, because during the next century, Japan faced the most serious challenge it had confronted yet. The Mongols were now attempting to assert their hegemony throughout all of Asia. In 1226, Emperor Khubilai Khan demanded tribute from Japan. When the Japanese refused, he invaded with an army of more than 30,000 troops. Bad weather and difficult conditions forced a retreat, but the Mongols tried again in 1281. The Japanese we able to contain them for two months until the entire Mongol fleet was destroyed by a massive typhoon. The resistance to the Mongols had put a heavy strain on the system, however, and in 1333, the Kamahura Shogunate was overthrown by a coalition of powerful clans.
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A new shogun, supplied by the Ashikaga family, arose in Kyoto and attempted to continue the shogunate system, but the Ashikaga we unable to restore the centralized power of their predecessors. With the centralized government reduced, the power of the local landed aristocracy increased to an unprecedented degree. By the end of the fifteenth century, Japan was again close to anarchy. A disastrous civil conflict known as the Onin War led to the virtual destruction of the capital city of Kyoto and the disintegration of the shogunate. The Christian church had developed a system of government. A bishop headed the Christian community in each city; the bishoprics of each Roman province were joined together under the direction of an archbishop. The bishops of the four great cities, Roman, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch held positions of special power in church affairs because the churches in these cities all asserted that they had been founded by the original apostles sent out by Jesus. However, the bishop of Rome claimed that he was the sole leader of the western Christian church. According to church tradition, Jesus had given the keys to the kingdom of heaven to Peter, who was considered the chief apostle and the first bishop of Rome. As monotheistic ideal spread, a new form of monasticism based on living together in a community soon became the dominant form. Saint Benedict, who founded a monastic house for which he wrote a set of rules, established the basic form of monastic life on the western Christian church. Benedicts rules divided each day into a series of activities, with primary emphasis on prayer and manual labor. Physical work of some kind was required of all monks for several hours a day because idleness was “the enemy of the soul.” At the very heart of the community practice was prayer, the proper “work of God.” All monks gathered together seven times during the day for common prayer and chanting of
A new shogun, supplied by the Ashikaga family, arose in Kyoto and attempted to continue the shogunate system, but the Ashikaga we unable to restore the centralized power of their predecessors. With the centralized government reduced, the power of the local landed aristocracy increased to an unprecedented degree. By the end of the fifteenth century, Japan was again close to anarchy. A disastrous civil conflict known as the Onin War led to the virtual destruction of the capital city of Kyoto and the disintegration of the shogunate. The Christian church had developed a system of government. A bishop headed the Christian community in each city; the bishoprics of each Roman province were joined together under the direction of an archbishop. The bishops of the four great cities, Roman, Jerusalem, Alexandria, and Antioch held positions of special power in church affairs because the churches in these cities all asserted that they had been founded by the original apostles sent out by Jesus. However, the bishop of Rome claimed that he was the sole leader of the western Christian church. According to church tradition, Jesus had given the keys to the kingdom of heaven to Peter, who was considered the chief apostle and the first bishop of Rome. As monotheistic ideal spread, a new form of monasticism based on living together in a community soon became the dominant form. Saint Benedict, who founded a monastic house for which he wrote a set of rules, established the basic form of monastic life on the western Christian church. Benedicts rules divided each day into a series of activities, with primary emphasis on prayer and manual labor. Physical work of some kind was required of all monks for several hours a day because idleness was “the enemy of the soul.” At the very heart of the community practice was prayer, the proper “work of God.” All monks gathered together seven times during the day for common prayer and chanting of