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96 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
initially a term for enhanced performance in the presence of others; now a broader term for the effect - positive or negative - of the presence of others on performance
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social facilitation
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in a hierarchy of responses the response you are most likely to make
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dominant response
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a concern about how one appears in the eyes of others - that is, about being evaluated
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evaluation apprehension
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a theory based on the idea that being aware of another person's presence creates a conflict between attending to that person and attending to the task at hand it is this attentional conflict that is arousing and that produces social facilitation effects
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distraction-conflict theory
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the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored
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social loafing
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those behaviors that only surface when people are in groups
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emergent properties of groups
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the reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation that comes over a person when he or she is in a large group
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deindividuation
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urging a person who is on the verge of committing suicide to take his life
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suicide baiting
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emphasizing individual identity by focusing attention on the self, which will generally lead a person to act carefully and deliberately an in accordance with his or her sense of propriety and values
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individuation
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a theory that predicts that when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to their internal standards and values
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self-awareness theory
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initially a term for enhanced performance in the presence of others; now a broader term for the effect - positive or negative - of the presence of others on performance
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social facilitation
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in a hierarchy of responses the response you are most likely to make
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dominant response
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a concern about how one appears in the eyes of others - that is, about being evaluated
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evaluation apprehension
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a theory based on the idea that being aware of another person's presence creates a conflict between attending to that person and attending to the task at hand it is this attentional conflict that is arousing and that produces social facilitation effects
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distraction-conflict theory
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the tendency to exert less effort when working on a group task in which individual contributions cannot be monitored
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social loafing
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those behaviors that only surface when people are in groups
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emergent properties of groups
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the reduced sense of individual identity accompanied by diminished self-regulation that comes over a person when he or she is in a large group
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deindividuation
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urging a person who is on the verge of committing suicide to take his life
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suicide baiting
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emphasizing individual identity by focusing attention on the self, which will generally lead a person to act carefully and deliberately an in accordance with his or her sense of propriety and values
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individuation
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a theory that predicts that when people focus their attention inward on themselves, they become concerned with self-evaluation and how their current behavior conforms to their internal standards and values
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self-awareness theory
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people's conviction that other people are attending to them - to their appearance and behavior - more than is actually the case
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spotlight effect
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an understanding of the existence and properties of a separate self and its characteristics
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self-concept
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consistent ways that people think, feel, and act across classes of situations
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traits
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fiver personality traits (openness, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness, and neuroticism) that psychologists believe are the basic building blocks of personality
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five-factor model (big five)
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the degree to which traits or physical characteristics are determined by genes, and hence inherited from parents
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heritability
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twins who originate from a single fertilized egg that splits into two exact replicas that then develop into two genetically identical individuals
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monozygotic
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twins who originate from two different eggs fertilized by different sperm cells; like ordinary siblings, they share on average half of their genes
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dizygotic
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a principle that maintains that siblings develop into quite different people so that they can peacefully occupy different niches within the family environment
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diversification
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the hypothesis that we identify what makes us unique in each particular context, and we highlight that in our self-definition
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distinctiveness hypothesis
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the hypothesis that we compare ourselves to other people in order to evaluate our opinions, abilities, and internal states
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social comparison theory
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beliefs about the roles, duties, and obligations we assume in groups
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social beliefs
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beliefs about our identities in specific relationships
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relational self-beliefs
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our identity and beliefs as they relate to the social categories to which we belong
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collective self
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the tendency to elaborate upon and recall information that is integrated into our self-knowledge
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self-reference effect
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knowledge-based summaries of our feelings and actions and how we understand others' views about the self
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self-schemas
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a theory that appropriate behavior is motivated by cultural and moral standards regarding the ideal self and the ought self. violations of those standards produce emotions like guilt and shame when they are not adhered to
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self-discrepancy theory
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the self we truly believe ourselves to be
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actual self
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the self that embodies the wishes and aspirations we and other people maintain about ourselves
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ideal self
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a focus on positive outcomes, approach-related behavior, and cheerful emotions that help us live up to our ideals and aspirations
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promotion focus
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the self that is concerned with the duties, obligations, and external demands we feel we are compelled to honor
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ought self
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a sensitivity to negative outcomes often motivated by a desire to live up to our ought self and to avoid the guilt or anxiety that results when we fail to live up to our sense of what we ought to do
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prevention focus
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the tendency to judge others' personalities according to their similarity or dissimilarity to our own personality
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self-image bias
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the positive or negative overall evaluation you have of yourself
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self-esteem
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the enduring level of confidence and affection that people have for their defining abilities and characteristics across time
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trait self-esteem
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the dynamic changeable self-evaluations that are experienced as momentary feelings about the self
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state self-esteem
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an account of self-esteem maintaining that self-esteem is contingent on successes and failures in domains upon which a person has based his or her self-worth
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contingencies of self-worth
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a hypothesis that maintains that self-esteem is an internal, subjective index or marker of the extent to which we are included or looked on favorably by others
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sociometer hypothesis
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a model that maintains that we are motivated to view ourselves in a favorable light and that we do so through two processes: reflection and social comparison
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self-evaluation maintenance model
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a theory that holds that we strive for stable, accurate beliefs about the self because such beliefs give us a sense of coherence
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self-verification theory
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customary facial expressions, posture, gait, clothes, haircuts, and bodily decorations, which signal to others important facets of our identity, and by implication, how we are to be treated an construed by others
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identity cues
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presenting who we actually are, or who we would like others to believe we are
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self-presentation
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attempting to control the beliefs other people have of us
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impression management
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who we want others to think we are
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face
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our awareness of what other people think about us, our public identity
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public self-consciousness
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our awareness of our interior lives - our private thoughts, feelings, and sensations
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private self-consciousness
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the tendency for people to monitor their behavior in such a way that it fits the demands of the current situation
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self-monitoring
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the tendency to engage in self-defeating behaviors in order to prevent others from drawing unwanted attributions about the self as a result of poor performance
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self-handicapping
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the statements we make that we intend to be taken literally
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on-record communication
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indirect and ambiguous communication that allows us to hint at ideas and meanings that are no explicit in the words we utter
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off-record communication
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an umbrella term used to describe the set of theoretical accounts of how people assign causes to the events around them and the effects that people's causal assessments have
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attribution theory
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linking a cause to an instance of behavior - one's own or that of other people
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attribution
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a person's habitual way of explaining events, typically assessed along 3 dimensions: interality / externality, stability / instability, globality / specificity
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explanatory style
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the idea that we should assign reduced weight to a particular cause of behavior that there are other plausible causes that might have produced it
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discounting principle
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the idea that we should assign greater weight to a particular cause of behavior if there are other causes present that normally would produce the opposite outcome
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augmentation principle
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the idea that we should attribute behavior to potential causes that co-occur with the behavior
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covariation principle
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refers to what most people would do in a given situation - that is, whether most people would behave the same way or few or no other people would behave that way
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consensus
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refers to what an individual does in different situations - that is, whether the behavior is unique to a particular situation or occurs in all situations
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distinctiveness
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refers to what an individual does in a given situation on different occasions - that is, whether next time the behavior under the same circumstances would be the same or would differ
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consistency
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thoughts of what might have, could have, or should have happened "if only" something had been done differently
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counterfactual thoughts
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a ratcheting up of an emotional reaction to an event that is proportional to how easy it is to imagine the event not happening
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emotional amplification
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the tendency to attribute failure and other bad events to external circumstances, but to attribute success and other good events to oneself
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self-serving bias
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the tendency to draw an inference about a person that corresponds to the behavior observed; also referred to as the fundamental attribution error
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correspondence bias
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a tendency to believe mistakenly that a behavior is due to a person's disposition rather than a situation in which the person finds himself
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fundamental attribution error
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the belief that people get what they deserve in life and deserve what they get
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just world hypothesis
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differences in attribution based on who is making the causal assessment; the actor who is relatively disposed to make situational attributions or the observer who is relatively disposed to make dispositional attributions
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actor-observer difference
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the tendency for people to think that their behavior as well as their attitudes, preferences, or responses more generally is relatively common
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false consensus effect
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beliefs about attributes that are thought to be characteristic of members of particular groups
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stereotypes
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a negative attitude or affective response toward a certain group and its individual members
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prejudice
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unfair treatment of members of a particular group based on their membership in that group
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discrimination
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prejudice directed at other racial groups that exists alongside a rejection of explicitly racist beliefs
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modern racism
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a technique for revealing nonconscious prejudices toward particular groups
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implicit association test (IAT)
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a procedure used to increase the accessibility of a concept or schema for example, a stereotype
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priming
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a theory that group conflict, prejudice, and discrimination are likely to arise over competition between groups for limited resources
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realistic group conflict theory
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glorifying one's own group while vilifying other groups
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ethnocentrism
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goals that transcend the interests of one individual group and that can be achieved more readily by two or more groups working together
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superordinate goals
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an experimental paradigm in which researchers create groups based on arbitrary and seemingly meaningless criteria, and then examine how the members of these minimal groups are inclined to behave toward on another
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minimal group paradigm
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a theory that a person's self-concept and self-esteem not only derive from personal identity and accomplishments, but from the status and accomplishments of the various groups to which the person belongs
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social identity theory
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the tendency to take pride in the accomplishments of those with whom we are in some way associated even if it is only weakly as when fans identify with a winning team
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basking in reflected glory
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the theory that frustration leads to aggression
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frustration-aggression theory
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the tendency to assume that within-group similarity is much stronger for outgroups than for ingroups
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outgroup homogeneity effect
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acting on a belief in a way that tends to support the original belief, as when we act toward members of certain groups in ways that encourage the very behavior we expect from them
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self-fulfilling prophecy
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an erroneous belief about a connection between events, characteristics, or categories that are not, in fact, related
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illusory correlation
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the pairing of two distinctive events that stand out even more because they co-occur
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paired distinctiveness
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processes that occur outside of our awareness, without conscious control
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automatic processes
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processes that occur with conscious direction and deliberate thought
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controlled processes
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the fear that one will confirm the stereotype that others have regarding some salient group of which one is a member
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stereotype threat
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