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166 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Bottom-up Processing |
1) Processing based on incoming stimuli from the environment |
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Top-down Processing |
1) Processing based on the perceiver’s previous knowledge (cognitive factors) |
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Psychophysical approach (PP) |
The stimulus-perception relationship
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Physiological approach (PH1) |
The stimulus-physiology relationship |
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Physiological approach (PH2) |
The physiology and perception relationship |
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Dorsal |
Toward the back, away from the ventral (stomach) side. The top of the brain is considered dorsal because it has that position in four-legged animals. |
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Ventral |
Toward the stomach, away from the dorsal (back) side. |
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Anterior |
Toward the front end. |
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Posterior |
Toward the back end. |
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Superior |
Above another part. |
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Inferior |
Below another part. |
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Lateral |
Toward the side, away from the midline. |
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Medial |
Toward the midline, away from the side. |
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Proximal |
Located close (approximate) to the point of origin or attachment. |
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Distal |
Located more distant from the point of origin or attachment. |
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Ipsilateral |
On the same side of the body. (e.g. left side of brain, left side of body) |
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Contralateral |
On the opposite side of the body. (e.g. left side of the brain, right side of the body) |
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Coronal Plane |
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the front (or frontal plane). |
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Sagittal Plane |
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from the side. |
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Horizontal Plane |
A plane that shows brain structures as seen from above (or transverse plane). |
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Vision |
Stimulus - Electromagnetic energy Receptor - Photoreceptor Sensory structure - Eye Cortex - Primary visual cortex |
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Hearing |
Stimulus - Airpressure waves Receptor - Mechanoreceptors Sensory structure - Ear Cortex - Auditory cortex |
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Touch |
Stimulus - Tissue distortion Receptor - Mechanoreceptors, Thermoreceptors Sensory structure - Skin, muscle, etc. Cortex - Somatosensory cortex |
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Balance |
Stimulus - Gravity, Acceleration Receptor - Mechanoreceptors Sensory structure - Vestibular organs Cortex - Temporal cortex |
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Taste/Smell |
Stimulus - Chemical composition Receptor - Chemoreceptors Sensory structure - Nose, Mouth Cortex - Primary taste cortex, Olfactory cortex |
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Transduction |
The process by which individual sense organs convert energy from environmental events into neural activity. |
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The Perceptual Process (Loop) |
1) Environmental stimuli 2) Attended stimulus 3) Stimulus on the receptors 4) Transduction 5) Processing (involves prior knowledge) 6) Perception 7) Recognition 8) Action |
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Three stages of Perception |
1) Stimulus 2) Electricity 3) Experience and Action |
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Stage 1 of Perception - Stimulus |
o All objects in the environment are available to the observer. |
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Stage 2 of Perception - Electricity |
o Transduction occurs which changes environmental energy to nerve impulses |
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Stage 3 of Perception - Experience and Action |
o Perception occurs as a conscious experience. |
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Neuroanatomy |
The anatomy of the nervous system. Also refers to the study of the various parts of the nervous system and their respective function(s). |
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The Nervous System |
1) Central Nervous System (CNS) |
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Central Nervous System (CNS) |
1) Brain 2) Spinal Cord |
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Peripheral Nervous System (PNS) |
1) Somatic - Controls voluntary muscles and conveys sensory information to the central nervous system. 2) Autonomic - Controls involuntary muscles. |
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The Autonomic Nervous System |
1) This system sends and receives messages to regulate the automatic behaviours of the body (heart rate, blood pressure, respiration, digestion, etc). 2) Divided into two systems: - Parasympathetic (conserves energy) |
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Sections of the Brain |
1) Forebrain 2) Midbrain 3) Hindbrain |
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The Forebrain |
1) Thalamus 2) Hypothalamus 3) Cerebral Cortex 4) Limbic System 5) Corpus Callosum |
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The Hindbrain |
1) Cerebellum 2) Pons 3) Medulla |
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The Medulla |
1. This regulates our cardiovascular and respiratory systems (heartbeat, blood circulation and breathing rate). |
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The Pons |
1. This integrates information from movements of and sensations from facial muscles, tongue, |
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The Cerebellum |
This imposes fine control and coordination of balance and movements using the information from muscles, joints and tendons. (It’s a big job, |
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The Cerebral Cortex |
1) This contains up to six distinct laminae (layers) |
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The Four Lobes of the Cerebral Cortex |
1) Frontal lobe 2) Parietal lobe 3) Temporal lobe 4) Occipital lobe |
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Frontal Lobe |
This lobe is concerned with the planning of movements, recent memory, and some aspects of emotion. |
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Parietal Lobe |
This lobe is concerned with bodily sensations. |
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Temporal Lobe |
This lobe is concerned with hearing and advanced visual processing. |
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Occipital Lobe |
This lobe is concerned with vision. |
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The Thalamus |
This contains a large number of relay centres conveying nearly all the sensory information to the cortex (e.g. from the eyes - LGN). |
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The Hypothalamus |
1) This controls the autonomic nervous system and the endocrine system. |
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The Limbic System |
1) This is an important set of interconnecting structures, surrounding the thalamus and lying just under the cortex. |
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The Primary Sensory Projection Areas |
These serve as the receiving stations for information arriving from the eyes, ears etc. |
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The Primary Motor Projection Area |
This is the departure point for signals to the muscles. |
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Key Components of Neurones |
1) Cell body 2) Dendrites 3) Axon or nerve fibre |
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Receptors |
These are specialised neurones that respond to specific kinds of energy. |
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Soma |
The cell body of a neurone, which contains the nucleus. |
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Dendrite |
A branched treelike structure attached to the soma of a neurone; receives information from the terminal button of other neurones. |
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Axon |
The long thin cylindrical structure that conveys information from the soma of a neurone to its terminal button. |
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Synapse |
A junction between the terminal button of an axon and the membrane of another neurone. |
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Terminal Button |
The bud at the end of a branch of an axon; forms synapses with another neurone; sends information to that neurone. |
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Neurotransmitter |
A chemical that is released by a terminal button; |
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Glial Cells |
A type of cell in the central and peripheral nervous system that forms myelin sheaths. |
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Myelin Sheath |
A sheath that surrounds axons and insulates them, preventing messages from spreading between adjacent axons. |
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Node of Ranvier |
A naked portion of a myelinated axon, between |
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White Matter |
The axons, covered with myelin are White. |
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Grey Matter |
Cell bodies, dendrites, and un-myelinated axons are Grey. |
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Ions |
• Neurones are surrounded by a solution containing ions. |
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Action Potential Occurrence |
1) Electrical signals or action potentials occur when:
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Properties of Action Potentials |
1) Show propagated response. |
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Synaptic Transmission of Neural Impulses |
Neurotransmitters are:
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Excitatory Neurotransmitters |
These cause depolarisation. |
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Inhibitory Neurotransmitters |
These cause hyperpolarisation.
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Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) |
This is an excitatory depolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the release of a neurotransmitter by the |
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Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP)
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This is an inhibitory hyperpolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the release of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button. |
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Synaptic Reuptake |
The reentry of a neurotransmitter just released by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating the postsynaptic potential. |
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Synaptic Enzymatic Deactivation |
The destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release. For example, the destruction of acetylcholine |
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Visible Light |
This is a specific band of energy within the |
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Cornea |
1) The transparent tissue at the very front of the eye. 2) It is fixed, and accounts for about 80% of
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The Lens |
1) This acts like an aperture that prevents 2) It adjusts shape for object distance,
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Sclera |
Tough white tissue that coats the rest of the eye. |
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Iris |
Muscle tissue that controls the size of the pupil.
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Pupil |
This controls the amount of light that enters the eye. |
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Rods |
Cylinder-shaped receptors in the retina that are responsible for vision at low levels of illumination. |
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Cones |
Cone-shaped receptors in the retina that are primarily responsible for vision in high levels of illumination and for colour vision and detail vision. |
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Colour perceived by short wavelengths: |
Blue |
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Colour perceived by medium wavelengths: |
Green |
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Colour perceived by long wavelengths: |
Red |
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Colour perceived by long and medium wavelengths: |
Yellow |
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Colour perceived by long, medium and short wavelengths: |
White |
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Principle of Univariance |
• Individual cones are “colour blind”: the |
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Trichromatic Theory |
Theory that different amounts of red, green and blue combine to make up all the colours that we perceive. |
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Opponent-Process Theory of Colour Vision |
– Three mechanisms - red/green, |
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Additive Colour Mixing |
– Mixing lights of different wavelengths |
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Subtractive Colour Mixing
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– Mixing paints with different pigments |
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What is Colour? |
- Colour is a percept. There are NO physical colours in the outside world, only different spectral distributions of lights that are reflected from different objects. |
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Cue Approach to Depth Perception |
- Focuses on information in the retinal image that is correlated with depth in the scene. - We learn the connection between cue and depth, and this association becomes automatic through repeat exposure. |
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Cues for Depth Perception |
1) Oculomotor cues 2) Binocular cues 3) Monocular cues |
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Oculomotor Cues |
- Involves two sets of muscles. 1) Convergence - the inward movement of our eyes as we look at nearby objects. 2) Accommodation - the changes in shape of our lens as we focus on nearby objects. |
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Binocular Depth Cues |
- Depend on information received from both eyes. - Convergence can be labelled as a binocular depth cue as well. - Main binocular depth cue is disparity. |
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Binocular Disparity |
- The difference in the position of the images in our two eyes. |
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Stereopsis |
- The perception of depth as a result of retinal disparity. |
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Corresponding Retinal Points |
- These are the places on each retina that connect to the same places in the visual cortex. - The two foveas are an example of two such corresponding retinal points. |
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Horopter |
- An imaginary sphere that passes through the point of focus. - Objects on the horopter fall on corresponding points on the two retinas. |
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Non-corresponding Points |
- These are objects that do not fall on the horopter. - These points make disparate images. - The angle between these points is the absolute disparity. - The amount of disparity indicates how far an object is from the horopter.
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Relative Disparity |
- The difference between the absolute disparity of two objects. |
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Depth perception in other species |
- Animals use same range of cues as humans. - Frontal eyes are necessary for binocular disparity. - Lateral eyes provide a wider view, which allows them to watch for predators. |
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Monocular Depth Cues |
- Cues provided from only one eye. 1) Pictorial cues 2) Movement base cues |
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Motion Parallax |
- The difference in the perceived speed of movement for near and far objects. - Nearby objects appear to glide rapidly past us, whereas more distant objects appear to move more slowly. |
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Eye movement |
This allows us to: 2) Keep images of moving objects stationary on the retina. 3) Compensate for our head movements. |
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Main Types of Eye Movements |
1) Vergence (or Conjugate) movements 2) Saccadic movements 3) Pursuit movements 4) VOR - Vestibular Ocular Reflex |
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Vergence/Conjugate Movements |
- Vergence points both fovea at a near or a far target. - Vergence prevents double vision - During vergence, the eyes rotate in opposite directions (left eye moves right, right eye moves left) |
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Saccadic Movements |
- Saccades move the fovea to an object of interest. - They are very fast and accurate. - No voluntary control over their speed - Effectively blind during every saccade. - Both eyes move together |
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Pursuit Movements |
- Their purpose is to keep the fovea pointing at a moving target. - Pursuit is involuntary; you cannot initiate a pursuit in absence of a moving target. |
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VOR (Vestibular Ocular Reflex) Movements |
- These keep the image of the world stationary on the retina when we move our head. |
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What happens when images don't move on retina? |
- Appear normal at first - Then they begin to fade - After a short while, they cannot be seen at all
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How come the world doesn't fade when we fixate? |
- Eyes are never perfectly still. - Always a bit of a tremor in the 3 pairs of extraocular antagonist muscles even when we think we are holding a steady fixation. |
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Neural Circuits |
- Groups of neurons connected by excitatory and inhibitory synapses. - A simple circuit has no convergence and only excitatory impulses. - Each circuit can only indicate single spot of stimulation. |
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Convergent Circuit with only Excitatory Connections |
- Input from each receptor summates into |
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Convergent Circuit with Excitatory and |
– Inputs from receptors summate to |
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Center-Surround Receptive Fields |
- Excitatory and inhibitory effects are found in |
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Center-Surround Antagonism |
- Output of center-surround receptive fields |
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The receptive field of a neuron |
- The Receptive Field of a visual neuron is the |
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Why are the receptive fields of retinal ganglion |
• All the visual information that the eye sends to the brain is (must be) encoded in the responses (i.e. trains of action potentials or spikes) of these retinal ganglion cells. |
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Pathway from Retina to Cortex |
Signals from the retina travel through the |
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Other neurons in the visual cortex |
Complex cells |
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Neurons in Striate Cortex |
End-stopped cells |
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Feature Detectors |
• Neurons that fire to specific features of a |
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Optical Nerve Fibre (Ganglion Cell) |
- Center-surround receptive field. - Responds best to small spots, but will also respond to other stimuli. |
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Simple Cortical Cell |
- Excitatory and inhibitory areas arranged side by side. - Responds best to bars of a particular orientation. |
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Complex Cortical Cell |
- Responds best to movement of a correctly oriented bar across the receptive field. - Many cells respond best to a particular direction of movement. |
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End-Stopped Cortical Cell |
- Responds to corners, angles or bars of a particular length moving in a particular direction. |
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What makes a sound ? |
Two definitions of “sound” |
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The two components of a pure sound wave |
1. Amplitude – the difference between the baseline pressure and the peak or the trough in air pressure. |
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Amplitude |
• The amplitude determines the loudness of a tone. |
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Frequency |
• Frequency = 1/Wavelength. • A tone’s frequency is measured in units called |
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Timbre & Overtones |
• We can tell a guitar from a piano or a clarinet |
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The Outer ear |
– Pinna helps with sound location (more |
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The Middle Ear |
• Two cubic centimeter cavity separating inner from outer ear |
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Function of Ossicles |
• Outer and inner ear are filled with air. |
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Transduction by the Hair Cells |
• Movement of a bundle of cilia in different directions changes the firing rate of an auditory neuron. |
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Place Coding (High to Middle Frequencies) |
• High and middle frequency are represented at |
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Coding of low frequencies |
• In this case, the basilar membrane actually follows the vibrations and the rate of firing of auditory neurons changes with the frequency of vibration. |
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Summary of Auditory Transduction |
• Vibrations of the oval window by the 3 ossicles cause movement of the fluid in the cochlea and of the basilar membrane. |
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Locating the source of a sound |
• Left vs. Right (azimuth): |
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The three main somatosenses |
1) Cutaneous sense |
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Types of Cutaneous receptors |
Free nerve endings: |
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Cutaneous System |
• Skin - heaviest organ in the body: |
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Mechanoreceptors (Close to surface of skin) |
– Merkel receptor fires continuously while |
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Mechanoreceptors (Deeper in skin) |
– Ruffini cylinder fires continuously to |
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Somatosenses (Internal Senses) |
• Sensory endings located in our internal organs, |
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Anatomy of the vestibular apparatus |
Vestibular sac |
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The Chemosenses |
1. Gustation = Taste |
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The Taste System |
• Sweetness is usually associated with |
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Five basic taste qualities |
– Salty |
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Structure of the Taste System |
• Tongue contains different papillae: |
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Taste Buds |
• Taste buds are located in papillae except for |
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Tongue |
- The receptor sheet for taste. Contains papillae, taste buds, taste cells, and receptor sites. |
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Taste Cells |
- Cells that make up a taste bud. There are a number of cells for each bud, and the tip of each one sticks out into a taste pore. One or more nerve fibres are associated with each cell. |
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Tongue Receptor Sites |
Sites located on the tips of the taste cells. There are different types of sites for different chemicals. Chemicals contacting the sites cause transduction by affecting ion flow across the membrane of the taste cell. |
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The neural pathway from tongue to brain |
Receptor cells send information
• All three converge on the Solitary Nucleus in the |
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The olfactory apparatus |
Olfactory mucosa |
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Functions of Olfaction |
• Many animals are macrosmatic - having a |
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Detecting Odors – Sensitivity |
• Rats are 8 to 50 times more sensitive to |
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Identifying Odors - Recognition |
• Recognition threshold - concentration needed |
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The Perception of Flavor |
• Combination of smell, taste, and other |
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Orbital Frontal Cortex (OFC) |
• Responses from taste and smell are first |