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25 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Priming in social psychology: Replicability issues
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- Some priming effects – in particular the more spectacular ones – have recently been called into question
-> Doyen et al. (2012): Bargh elevator study could only be replicated if the experimenter knew the hypothesis (and the condition), however see study by Cesario et al (2006) for a replication -> A series of failed replications of very specific embodied cognition effects: -> Example: Holding a warm cup leads to friendlier (warmer) evaluations of another persons, while holding a cold cup leads to less positive (colder) evaluations difficulties in replication(e.g. Bower, 2012) - Potential reasons for non-replications -> Original effects are the only significant ones in a whole series of failed attempts (false positives) -> Cultural differences, language differences |
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Priming of metaphors
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- Theoretical approaches for explaining metaphor priming are still being developed
-> Research on linguistic representations of metaphors shows that they are very abstract representations grounded in concrete sensory experiences (embodied realism, Lakoff & Johnson, 1999) -> Various approaches to link bodily experiences to metaphorical representations of the environment -> Barsalou (perceptual symbols approach) -> Smith & Semin (grounded social cognition) |
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Embodied social cognition & metaphors
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- The activation of metaphorical representations might influence our behavior
- Important difference to other forms of priming: The underlying assumption about memory representations is different! Representation of events not just as an (amodal) associative semantic network, but as perceptual symbols that include more than abstract knowledge - Early findings -> “pen study”: Participants in the “teeth” condition evaluated a cartoon as more funny than in the “lip” condition -> Stepper & Strack (1993): Upright vs. slouched position has an influence on the experience of pride. Upright position + success in a task led to higher ratings of pride - More recent findings -> Holding a heavy vs. a light clipboard alters perceptions of importance (heavy clipboards lead to higher evaluation of monetary costs, Jostmann et al., 2009) -> Vertical positions might be linked to the concept of power (Schubert, 2005) |
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Power + verticality
Schubert, 2005, Study 1 |
- Which picture best represents the propositions?
-> rules over, has influence on, is stronger than, is superior to, ... (powerful) -> defers to, loses against, gives in to, is weaker than, ... (powerless) -> gives something to, wants, pushes, pulls, ... (horizontal) - Results: Powerful and powerless positions were more likely to be located in a vertical manner Explanation: - Not by the simple assumption of an associative network model - Mental representations of certain concepts are tied to the way we perceive them - Knowledge is stored in the form of perceptual symbols -> Perceptual symbols include perceptual input like motor input -> So in addition to all the semantic knowledge related to a concept, perceptual experiences are also stored -> The activation of these experiences might then influence judgments, cognition etc. -> Perceptual symbol systems theory is one model of an embodied cognition approach |
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Power + verticality
Schubert, 2005, Study 4 |
- Who’s more powerful? (response time task)
- Various group labels (or social roles) - Results: -> Positions of group label on the screen determine response speed -> Powerful groups: top -> Powerless groups: bottom Explanation: - Not by the simple assumption of an associative network model - Mental representations of certain concepts are tied to the way we perceive them - Knowledge is stored in the form of perceptual symbols -> Perceptual symbols include perceptual input like motor input -> So in addition to all the semantic knowledge related to a concept, perceptual experiences are also stored -> The activation of these experiences might then influence judgments, cognition etc. -> Perceptual symbol systems theory is one model of an embodied cognition approach |
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Emotions can be socially constructed
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Preference/evaluations versus moods versus emotions
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Preference/evaluations:
-> mild subjective reactions (pleasant, unpleasant) Moods: -> affective response without a specific target -> Positive vs negative -> Have some duration -> Diverse influence on many aspects of social cognition Emotions: -> Complex pattern of affect (beyond good/bad) -> Can include physical arousal -> Temporal influence is limited (shorter than preferences) |
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“Non-cognitive” theories of emotion
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- James-Lange Theory: Emotions are based on our physiological responses
- Different kinds of evidence: -> Strack et al. (1988) pen study -> Excitation transfer theory -> Misattribution of arousal (Lecture 5) -> Other studies on facial feedback -> Dimberg (2000) very fast automatic responses to other people’s facial expressions |
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Fast responsens to facial expressions
(Dimberg et al., 2000) |
- Participant were presented with happy or angry faces for only 30 milliseconds.
- EMG activity in facial muscles was observed previously when emotional pictures were presented consciously, but can people also unconsciously imitate other people? |
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Excitation transfer
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Cognitive approaches to emotions
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- Early theory: Cannon-Bard approach
-> Visceral input insufficient (and too diffuse to produce specific emotions) -> Basis for many cognitive emotion models, especially so-called appraisal theories -> Appraisal: evaluations of how the environment will impact us based on similar past experiences and potential for own actions |
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Kelley’s Covariation Model
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Weiner’s Attributional Theory of Emotion (1985)
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- Originally put forward as a theory of achievement motivation
- Dimensions that people use to explain an event or situation: -> Internal-external locus -> Stable-variable -> Controllable-uncontrollable - Attributions on these dimensions provoke basic emotions |
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Regret vs. disappointment seen from an attributional logic
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- How can regret and disappointment be distinguished?
-> both are emotions related to negative situations involving violated expectations - Zeelenberg et al. (1998) -> When asked to generate counterfactual thoughts about situations involving regret, or disappointment participants showed the following pattern: -> Regret: counterfactuals about own actions (internal aspects) -> Disappointment: counterfactuals about the situation (external aspects) |
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Emotions influenced by mental simulations
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Two types of relief
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- Near-miss relief: a negative outcome has been narrowly avoided
- Task-completion relief: an unpleasant/aversive event has been completed |
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What are the functional differences between the two types of relief?
Hypotheses by Sweeney & Vohs, 2012 |
- Functions:
-> Near-miss relief should be linked to downward counterfactual thinking (imagining how things could have been worse) in order to prepare individuals for similar events in the future -> Near-miss relief should lead to a focus on the person (potentially to rumination), and thereby increase feelings of increase social isolation -> Task-completion relief should not be influenced by downward counterfactual thoughts but should be linked to stronger endurance of negative events (potentially upward counterfactuals) |
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What are the functional differences between the two types of relief?
Research by Sweeney & Vohs, 2012 |
- Near-miss condition: Participants thought they would have to sing an embarrassing song, after the preparations they learned that the recorder was broken
- Task-relief conditions: Participants had to sing the song - DVs: extent of counterfactual thinking, social isolation, experienced emotions (open answer) - Results: Path analysis showed that the strength of counterfactual thinking mediated the influence of relief on feelings of isolation |
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Regret from a cognitive perspective
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- Reminder: Norm theory (Kahneman & Miller, 1986)
- Emotional amplification: states that the affective response to an event is enhanced if its causes are abnormal. - “Abnormal” in this context means that an event has highly available alternatives (retrieved or constructed) - Classic study: Medvec, Madey, & Gilovich (1995) -> Bronze medal winners during 1992 Summer Olympics are rated as happier than silver medalists -> Explanation: it is easier for Silver medalists to imagine how they could have had gold, while Bronze medalists could easily imagine not to have won any meda. |
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What do people regret?
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Cognition and affect
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- Both causal dimensions (cognition bodily experiences vs. bodily experiences cognition) have stimulated research
- More complex emotion models tend to put a stronger emphasis on cognition (also relevant in clinical contexts) - However, bodily influences play a big role in automatic (fast) responses, especially for preferences and evaluations |
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From concept activation to behavior change
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- Does thinking about a desired goal always lead to behavior change?
- Research on fantasizing about the future specifies the conditions under which thinking about a goal is likely to result in behavior change |
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Fantasies versus expectancies
Research example: Oettingen & Mayer |
- How do fantasies and expectancies about a situation influence future behavior?
- Context: recovery from hip replacement surgery -> Prediction: Positive fantasies predict low success, while high expectancies of success promote recovery |
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Expectancies
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= Beliefs about the future, assessment of probabilities
- Link between expectancies and performance: Provide a strong basis for behavioral investment |
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Fantasies
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= Images about the future
- Link between fantasies and performance: Positive fantasies can be about smooth goal attainment, and can lead to moments of indulgence in a yet to be attained outcome |