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105 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Attitude
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An opinion, belief or behaviour about issues, people and/or events
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Evaluation
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A judgement being made, either positive, negative or neutral about some specific aspects of our lives and the world in which we live in
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Tri-component Model
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An attitude model consisting of three parts: affective (feelings), behavioural (actions) and cognitive (knowledge)
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Affective Component
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The emotional reactions or feelings an individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue
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Behavioural Component
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The way in which an attitude is expressed through an individuals actions
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Cognitive Component
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The beliefs an individual has towards an object, person, group, event or issue
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Classical Conditioning
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A simple form of learning which occurs through repeated association of two different stimuli (events)
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Operant Conditioning
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A kind of learning based on the assumption that we tend to repeat behaviour which has a desirable consequence or result and tend not to repeat behaviour which has an undesirable consequence or result
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Modelling
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A type of learning that involves observing behaviour and its consequences to guide one's future thoughts, feelings or behaviour. Also called observational learning
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Stereotype
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Generalizations made about a group of people who all have the same characteristics
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Stigma
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A negative label associated with disapproval or rejection by others who are not labelled in that way
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Prejudice
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An unjustified or incorrect attitude, usually negative, towards an individual based solely on the individual’s membership of a social group.
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Discrimination
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Is the behavior or actions, usually negative, towards an individual or group of people, especially on the basis of sex/race/social class
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Ingroup
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Any group to which an individual belongs or with which an individual identifies
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Outgroup
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Any group to which an individual does not belong or identify with
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Intergroup conflict
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Conflict that occurs between people within a group or team
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Attribution
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The process of trying to explain observed behaviour in terms of a particular cause
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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The tendency to overestimate the influence of personal characteristics and underestimate the influence of the specific situation or social context when explaining a person's behaviour
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Just World Hypothesis
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The tendency for an individual to believe that they live in a world where people generally get what they deserve and deserve what they get
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Observational Study
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A research method that involves watching and describing behaviour as it occurs
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Superordinate Goals
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Are goals that get people from opposing sides to come together and work toward a common end result
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Self-report
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A type of survey, questionnaire, or poll in which respondents read the question and select a response by themselves without researcher
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Questionnaire
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A set of questions for participants to answer on a topic of research interest
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Survey
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A survey is a data collection tool used to gather information about individuals
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Likert Scale
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A scale used to represent people's attitudes to a topic
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Informed Consent
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Refers to an ethical principle requiring that research participants must be told enough information to enable them to choose whether they wish to participate or not
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Confidentiality
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Refers to an ethical requirement of social scientific research which stipulates that research data not be shared outside of the research environment
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Social Influence
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The effects of the presence or actions of one or more others, either real or imagined, on the way in which an individual thinks, feels or behaves
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Status
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The importance or ‘standing’ of an individual within a group, as perceived by members of the group
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Reward Power
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To reward actions/behaviours
(chocolate for doing work) |
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Coercive Power
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To punish actions/behaviours
(child in time-out) |
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Legitimate Power
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The power granted by some authority
(police officer) |
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Referent Power
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When there is admiration or respect
(look up to someone/hero) |
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Expert Power
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When someone has experience or education on certain topic
(psychology teacher) |
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Obedience
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Following the commands of someone with authority, or the rules or laws of our society
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Social Proximity
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The physical closeness between two or more people
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Group Pressure
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Any direct or indirect social pressure that is exerted by a group on its individual members to influence their choices and may be rational argument, persuasion.
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Deception
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The withholding of information or the misleading of participants is unacceptable if the participants are typically likely to object or show unease once debriefed
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Debriefing
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A procedure conducted at the end of an experiment in which the researcher provides human participants with as much information about the study as possible, making sure no participant leaves feeling confused, upset, or embarrassed
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Voluntary Participation
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A person must choose to participate and should not be coerced into participation
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Withdrawal Rights
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Must be made clear to participants at the start of the investigation that they have the right to withdraw at any time
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Conformity
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The tendency to adjust one's thoughts, feelings or behaviour in ways that are in agreement with those of a particular individual or group, or with accepted standards about how one should behave in certain situations
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Normative Influence
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When an individual's response in a group situation is guided by one or more social norms, out of a desire to be liked or accepted by the group
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Social Loafing
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The tendency of an individual to make less effort when involved in a group activity than when working alone
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Deindividuation
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The loss of individuality, or the sense of anonymity, that can occur in a group situation
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Peer Group
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A group made up of individuals and cliques that share similar norms, interests, attitudes and values
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Clique
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A small group of adolescent friends of similar age and generally of the same sex
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Peer Pressure
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Social influence by peers, to think, feel or behave in a particular way
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Pro-social Behaviour
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Everyday acts of helping others, as well as helping that involves personal cost to the helper
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Situational Factors Influencing Pro-social behaviour
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1) Noticing the situation
2) Interpreting the situation 3) Taking Responsibility for helping |
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Reciprocity norm
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Should help others who help us
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Social Responsibility Norm
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Should help those who need help because it is our responsibility or duty to do so
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Personal Factors Influencing Pro-social behaviour
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1) Empathy
2) Mood 3) Competence |
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Empathy
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The ability to understand and share the feelings of another. People are more likely to help someone if they feel empathy for them
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Mood
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Is a temporary state of mind or feeling. People are more likely to help someone when in a good mood
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Competence
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The ability to do something successfully or efficiently. People with abilities or training that are relevant to a situation in which help is required are more likely to help
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Altruism
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Refers to pro-social behaviour focused on the well-being or benefit of others without any thought to personal gain or reward
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Factors Influencing Reluctance to Help
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1) Diffusion of responsibility
2) Audience inhibition 3) Cost-benefit analysis |
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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The belief that, in a situation where help is required and others are present, one or more other people will or should take responsibility for helping.
(In playground at school, believe teacher should take responsibility) |
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Audience Inhibition
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The presence of an audience can prevent someone from helping due to not wanting to embarrass themselves or feel foolish
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Cost-benefit Analysis
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Involves an individual weighing up the personal and social costs of helping against the benefits of helping
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Anti-social Behaviour
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Any behaviour that is disruptive or harmful to the well-being or property of another person or to the functioning of a group or society
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Aggression
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A behaviour intended to cause physical or psychological harm to a person, animal or object
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Explanations of Aggression
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1) Psychodynamic Perspective
2) Ethological Perspective 3) Biological Perspective 4) Social learning Perspective |
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Psychodynamic Perspective
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Aggression is an inner urge or 'force' that builds up within us until it needs to be released
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Ethological Perspective
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Aggression is instinctive and has adaptive and survival functions
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Biological Perspective
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Aggression has a biological basis and is therefore influenced by our genes, biochemistry, brain and nervous system
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Social learning Perspective
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Aggression is a learned behaviour and most of the learning occurs through observing aggressive behaviour and copying what we see
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Bullying
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Is an aggressive behaviour that involves the inappropriate use of power by one or more persons over another less powerful person or group
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Types of Bullying
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1) Direct physical bullying
2) Direct verbal bullying 3) Indirect Bullying |
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Cyberbullying
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Bullying that is carried out through an internet service or phone
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Intelligence
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Psychologists don't all agree on what intelligence is. A widely accepted definition is that it involves the ability to learn from experience, to acquire knowledge
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Binet
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Intelligence as an age related set of abilities. IQ test, found by finding the mental age and dividing by chronological age (IQ = MA/CA)
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Wechsler
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Intelligence as verbal and performance abilities.
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Gardner
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Multiple intelligences
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Sternberg
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triarchic theory of intelligence
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Cattell-Horn-Carroll
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Model of psychometric abilities
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Test Validity
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A test must actually measure what it is suppose to measure.
1) Content validity 2) Criterion-related validity 3) Construct Validity |
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Content Validity
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The content of the test, including all its subtests and items, adequately measures what it is designed to measure
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Criterion-related Validity
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The test can adequately predict performance on other tasks that most people agree require intelligence
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Construct Validity
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The test provides a good reflection of the theory on which it is based and that there is empirical evidence supporting the theory
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Test Reliability
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The ability of a test to consistently measure what it is suppose to measure each time it is given.
1) Test-retest reliability 2) Parallel-forms reliability 3) Split-half reliability 4) Internal consistency 5) Inter-rater reliability |
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Test-retest Reliability
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Involves giving the intelligence test to the same group of people on two different occasions and then comparing the two sets of scores
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Parallel-forms Reliability
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Involves giving another version of the same test instead of using exactly the same test twice
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Split-half Reliability
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Involves dividing the original test into halves and examining the correlation between scores on each half
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Internal Consistency
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Involves using correlations between different items in the same test to determine whether the items produce similar scores
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Inter-rater Reliability
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Involves checking that different test administrators get similar results from it
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Test Standardisation
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The test must be administered to a large sample who are representative of the population
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Test Norms
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Show the mean score on the test by particular groups of people
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Culture Bias
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The tendency of a test to give a lower score to a person from a culture different from that on which the test was standardised
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Personality
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An individuals unique pattern of thoughts, feelings and behaviour that are relatively stable over time and across situations
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Personality Theory
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An approach to describing and explaining the origins and development of personality, focusing on how people are similar, how they differ and why every individual is different
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Psychodynamic Theories
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A description and explanation of personality based on the underlying belief that personality is a result of unconscious psychological conflicts
Sigmund Freud |
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Trait Theories
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An approach to describing and explaining personality that emphasises traits (characteristics) and focuses on measuring, identifying and describing individual differences in personality
Allport, Cattell, Eysenck, Costa and McCrae |
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Humanistic Theories
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An approach to describing and explaining personality which emphasises the uniqueness of each individual and the positive qualities and potential of all human beings to fulfil their lives
Rogers |
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Longitudinal Study
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Studying the same group of research participants over an extended period of time, taking measurements on thoughts, feelings or behaviour of interest at different times
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Twin Studies
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If personality is entirely inherited, identical twins should have very similar personalities, regardless of whether they grow up in the same or different environment
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Adoption Studies
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Used to investigate the degree to which an adopted persons personality characteristics resemble those of their biological parents or their adoptive parents
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Personality Tests
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Is an assessment device used to evaluate or measure aspects of personality , such as factors and specific traits
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Inventories
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Is a self-report or online test which has a list of questions designed to access various aspects of personality
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Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI)
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A personality inventory which categorises an individual into one of 16 personality types depending on their preferences for how they perceive the world and make decisions
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Hollands Self-Directed Search
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Is a career counselling inventory which enables a person to identify their personality type and match it with career preferences which suit their personality type
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Projective Tests
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Attempts to uncover an individuals unconscious wishes, desires, fears, thoughts, needs and other hidden aspects of personality by asking them to describe what they see or to make up a story from an ambiguous stimulus
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Rorschach
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Inkblot Test. Describe what they see out of the inkblot on page
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Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
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Cards with various situations which are designed to generate its own themes, needs and conflicts. Participants are asked to tell a story using the card. It is assumed that in these stories individuals reveal the conflicts, moods and themes that dominate their lives
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