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168 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Memory |
Process by which we encode, store, and retrieve information |
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Sensory memory |
Initial, momentary storage of information that lasts only an instant |
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Short term memory |
Holds information for 15-25 seconds, stores according to meaning rather than sensory stimulation |
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Long term memory |
Stores information on a relatively permanent basis, although it may be difficult to retrieve. |
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Iconic memory |
(Part of sensory memory) Reflects information from the visual system. |
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Echoic memory |
(Part of the sensory memory) Store auditory information coming from the ears. |
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Chunking |
Grouping information that can be stored in short term memory. 7 plus or minus 2. |
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Rehearsal |
Repetition of information that has entered short term memory |
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Elaborative rehearsal |
Information is considered and organized in some fashion |
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Mnemonics |
Organizing information in a way that makes it more likely to be remembered |
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Working memory |
A memory system that holds information temporarily while actively manipulating and rehearsing that information |
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Long term memory |
Storehouse of almost unlimited capacity |
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Declarative memory |
For factual information |
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Semantic memory |
Part of declarative memory. For general knowledge, facts about the world, and rules of logic. |
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Episodic memory |
Part of the declarative memory. For events that occur in a particular time, place, or context. |
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Procedural memory |
For skills and habits. Also known as non declarative memory. |
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Semantic networks |
Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information. |
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Semantic networks |
Mental representations of clusters of interconnected information. |
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Spreading activation |
Activating one memory triggers the activation of related memories. |
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Hippocampus |
Part of the brain's limbic system. It plays a central role in the consolidation of memories. |
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Amygdala |
Part of the brain's limbic system, it is involved with memories involving emotion. |
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Long term potential |
Certain neural pathways become easily excited while a new response is being learned. |
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Consolidation |
Memories become fixed and stable in long term memory. |
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Tip of the tongue phenomena |
In ability to recall information that 1 realizes 1 knows. |
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Retrieval cues |
Stimulus that allows us to more easily recall information that is in long term memory. |
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Recall |
Specific piece of information must be retrieved. |
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Recognition |
Occurs when one is presented with a stimulus and asked whether they have been exposed to it previously or is asked to identify it from a list of alternatives. |
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Explicit memory |
Intentional or conscience recollection of inclination. |
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Implicit memory |
Memories of which people are not consciously aware. |
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Priming |
Occurs when exposure to a word or concept makes it easier to recall related information later. |
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Flashbulb memories |
Memories related to a specific, important, or surprisingly emotionally significant event that are recalled easily with vivid imagery. |
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Source amnesia |
Occurs when an individual has a memory for some material but cannot recall where they encountered it. |
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Constructive processes in memory |
Process in which memories are influenced by the meaning one gives to events. |
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Schemas |
Organized bodies of information stored in memory that bias the way new information is interpreted, stored, or recalled. |
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Repressed and false memories |
Recollections of events that are initially so shocking that the mind pushed them into the unconscious. Memories may be in accurate or even wholly false. |
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Auto biographical memory |
Recognition of your own life experiences. One tends to forget information about one's past that is incompatible with the way in which one currently sees oneself. |
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Decay |
The loss of information through non use. |
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Memory traces |
Physical changes that take place in the brain when new material is learned. |
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Interference |
Information in memory disrupts the recall of other information. |
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Cue dependent forgetting |
Occurs when there are insufficient retrieval cues to rekindle information that is in memory. |
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Proactive interference |
Information learned earlier disrupts the recall of newer material. |
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Retro interference |
Material that was learned later disrupts the retrieval of information that was learned earlier. |
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Alzheimers disease |
Progressive brain disorder that leads to a gradual and irreversible decline in cognitive abilities. |
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Amnesia |
Memory loss that occurs without other mental difficulties. |
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Retrograde amnesia |
Memory is lost for occurrences prior to a certain event but not for new events. |
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Anterograde amnesia |
Memory is lost for events that follow and injury. |
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Korsakoff's syndrome |
Afflicts long term alcoholics. Some abilities remain intact but include hallucinations and a tenancy to repeat the same story. |
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Cognitive psychology |
Branch of psychology that focuses on the study of higher mental processes including thinking, language, memory, problem solving, knowing, reason, judging, and decision making. |
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Thinking |
Brain activity in which people mentally manipulate information including words, visual images, sounds, or other data. |
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Mental images |
Representations in the mind of an object or event |
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Concepts |
Mental groupings of similar objects, events, or people. |
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Prototypes |
Typical, highly representative examples of a concept. |
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Algorithm |
Rule that, it's applied appropriately, guarantees a solution to the problem. |
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Heuristic |
Thinking strategy that may lead to a solution but may sometimes lead to errors |
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Availability heuristic |
Judging the probability of an event occurring on the basis of how easily it is to think of examples |
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Representativeness heuristic |
Rule one applies when he judges people by the degree to which they represent a certain category or group of people |
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Familiarity heuristic |
Familiar items are seen as superior. |
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Preparation |
Understanding and diagnosing problems |
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Well defined problem |
Nature of the problem and the information needed to solve are available and clear |
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Ill defined problem |
Nature of the problem and the information needed to solve are unclear |
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Arrangement problems |
Have all the information but needs to be rearranged to get the answer |
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Problems of inducing structure |
Have some of the information but still need to figure out what's missing |
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Transformation problem |
Have some of the information but it will still take several mental steps to find the answer |
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Production |
Generating solutions to problems, trial-and-error or complex problem solving using heuristics and cognitive shortcuts |
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Means end analysis |
Involves repeated test for differences between the desired outcome and what currently exists |
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Subgoals |
Dividing problems into their parts |
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Insight |
Sudden awareness of the relationships among various elements that had previously appeared to be unrelated to one another |
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Judgment |
Final stage and problem solving |
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Functional fixedness |
Tendency to think of an object only in terms of its typical use. |
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Mental set |
A framework for the thinking about a problem based on prior experience with similar problems |
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Confirmation bias |
Tendency to seek out and weigh more heavily information that supports one's initial hypothesis and to ignore contradictory information that supports alternative hypothesis or solutions. |
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Creativity |
Ability to generate original ideas or solve problems and novel ways |
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Divergent thinking |
Thinking that generates unusual, yet appropriate, responses to problems or questions |
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Convergent thinking |
Thinking in which a problem is viewed as having a single answer |
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Language |
Communication of information through symbols arranged according to sematic rules |
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Grammar |
System of rules that determine how our thoughts can be expressed |
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Phonology |
Study of the smallest units of speech called phonemes |
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Phonemes |
Smallest units of speech |
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Syntax |
Ways in which words and phrases can be combined to form sentences |
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Semantics |
Meaning of words and sentences |
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Cooing |
Only vowel sounds, no consonants |
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Babble |
Meaningless, speech like sounds made by children from age 3 months to one year. |
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Telegraphic speech |
Sentences in which only essential words are used. Examples: me eat, me out, me toy |
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Overgeneralization |
The phenomena by which children over apply a language rule, thereby making a linguistic error. Example: runned |
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At what age should the 1st words be spoken |
Age one |
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Learning theory approach |
Language acquisition follows the principles of reinforcement and conditioning |
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Nativist approach |
Humans are biologically pre wired to learn language at certain times and in particular ways |
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Interactionist approach |
Combination of genetically determined predispositions and environmental circumstances |
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Linguistic relativity hypothesis |
Language shapes and may determine the way people perceive and understand the world |
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Wernicke's area |
In temporal lobe and is primarily involved in speech comprehension |
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Broca's area |
In frontal lobe and is mainly involved in the production of speech |
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Bilingual education |
Teaching 2 languages at the same time |
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Immersion programs |
Students are immediately plunged into foreign language instruction in all subjects |
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Alternation model |
Combine both billingual education and immersion programs |
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Intelligence |
The ability to acquire knowledge, think critically, and to use resources effectively |
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Culture specific intelligence |
The skills required to adapt successfully to environmental demands may differ from culture to culture |
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G factor |
The single, general factor for mental ability assumed to underlie intelligence in some early theories of intelligence |
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Fluid intelligence |
Intelligence that reflects information processing capabilities, reasoning, and memory |
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Crystalized intelligence |
The accumulation of information skills and strategies that are learned through experience |
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Theory of multiple intelligences |
Howard Gardner. Harvard psychologist believes there are 8 distinct spears of intelligence. |
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Linguistic intelligence |
Use language as well as writers do. Howard Gardner |
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Logical/Mathematical intelligence |
The ability to reason mathematically and logically. Howard Gardner. |
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Spatial intelligence |
Ability to solve spatial problems or to succeed in a field such as architecture. Howard Gardner. |
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Musical intelligence |
Ability to perceive pitch and rhythm. Howard Gardner. |
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Bodily kinesthetic intelligence |
Skills in using the whole body or various portions of it, in the solution of problems, or in the construction of products or displays, exemplified by dancers, athletes, actors, and surgeons. Howard Gardner. |
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Interpersonal intelligence |
Ability to understand and relate well to others. Howard Gardner. |
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Intrapersonal intelligence |
Ability to understand one's self. Howard Gardner. |
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Naturalistic intelligence |
Ability to detect and understand phenomena in a natural environment. Howard Gardner. |
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Practical intelligence |
Intelligence related to overall success in living. Robert Sternberg. |
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Analytical intelligence |
Focuses on abstract but traditional types of problems measured on IQ tests. Robert Sternberg. |
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Creative intelligence |
Involves the generation of novel ideas and products. Robert Sternberg. |
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Emotional intelligence |
The set of skills that underlie the accurate assessment, evaluation, expression, and regulation of emotions |
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Alfred Binet |
Developed the 1st intelligence test to assess the mental skills of French school children |
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Lewis Terman |
Imported the Binets intelligence test to US in 1916 and revised it as the Stanford-binet scale |
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The Stanford-Binet |
The standard for individually administered intelligence tests and is still used today |
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David Wechsler |
Believed the Stanford Binet relied too much on verbal skills. Thought intelligence should be measured by verbal and nonverbal ability's. Developed test for adults and children that measured both nonverbal and verbal intellectual skills. |
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Reliability |
Consistency of measurement |
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Validity |
How well a test actually measures what it is designed to measure |
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Standardization |
The development of norms rigorously controlled by testing procedures |
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Mentally retarded |
Approximately 3 to 5% of the US population, or about 10 million people, are classified as _______? |
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Familiar disability |
ID with no apparent biological defect |
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Giftedness |
At the top end of the intelligence bell curve are intellectually gifted. Many are enormously talented in one area of mental competence but quite average in other domains. Large discrepancies are often found between verbal and spatial/Mathematical skills. |
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Mild retardation |
IQ of 54-69 and is 90% of retarded population. |
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Moderate retardation |
IQ of 40-54 and is 7% of retarded population. |
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Severe retardation. |
IQ of 25-39 and is 2% of retarded population. |
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Profound retardation |
IQ of below 24 and is 1% of retarded population. |
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Giftedness |
At the top end of the intelligence bell curve. IQ's of 130 or higher. In the top 2-4% of the population. |
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Artificial intelligence |
The attempt to create machines that think like humans. Computers trying to emulate the brain. |
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Motivation |
Factors that direct and energize the behavior of humans and other organisms. |
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Instincts |
Inborn patterns of behaviors that are biologically determined rather than learned. |
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Instinct approaches of motivation |
People and animals are born preprogrammed with sets of behaviors essential to their survival. |
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Drive reduction theory |
Suggests that a lack of some basic biological need produces a drive to push an organism to satisfy that need. |
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Drive |
Motivational tension, or arousal, that energizes behavior to fulfill a need. |
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Primary drive |
Basic drives (hunger, thirst, sleep, sex) are related to biological needs of the body or of the species as a whole. |
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Secondary drives |
Prior experience and learning bring about needs (doing well in school) |
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Homeostasis |
Balance. Body's tendency to maintain a steady internal state. |
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Arousal approach |
Belief that people try to maintain a steady level of stimulation and activity. |
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Incentive approach |
Suggests that motivation stems from the desire to obtain valued external goals or incentives (grades, money, food, etc) |
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Organisms sometimes seek to fulfill needs even when incentives are not apparent. |
Incentive approach fails to provide complete explanation of motivation because: |
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Cognitive approaches |
Suggests that motivation is a product of people's thoughts, beliefs, and expectations. |
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Combination explanation of motivation |
Internal drives work in tandem with external incentives to push or pull behavior |
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Self actualization |
Top of Maslows triangle. State of self fulfillment in which people realize their highest potential |
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Esteem |
4th on Maslows pyramid. Need to develop a sense of self worth |
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Love and belongingness |
3rd row of Maslows pyramid. Obtain and give affection. |
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Safety |
2nd row of Maslows pyramid. Safe and secure environment. |
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Physiological needs |
1st row in Maslows pyramid. Primary drives (food, water, sleep, and sex) |
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Obesity |
Body weight that is more than 20% above the average weight for a person of a certain height. By 2018 40% will be obese. |
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Glucose |
Kind of sugar |
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Insulin |
Leads body to store excess sugar in the blood as fats and carbohydrates. |
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Ghrelin |
Communicates to the brain feelings of hunger. |
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Hypothalamus |
Monitors glucose levels. Regulates food intake. |
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Weight set point |
Particular level of weight that the body strives to maintain. |
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Metabolism |
Rate at which food is concerted to energy and expanded by the body. |
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Fat cells |
Rate of weight gain during the 1st 4 months of life is related to being overweight during later childhood. |
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Weight |
Difference between eating disorders is |
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Sexual motivation |
Mostly guided by hormones |
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Androgens |
Male sex organs |
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Estrogen and progestrone |
Female sex hormones |
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Ovulation |
When an egg is released from the ovaries, making the chances of fertilization by sperm cell highest |
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Masterbation |
Sexual self stimulation, often using the hand to rub the genitals |
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Heterosexuality |
Sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex |
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Homosexuality |
Sexual attraction to members of their own sex |
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Bisexuality |
Sexually attracted to people of the same sex and the opposite sex. |
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Transsexuals |
People who believe they were born with the body of another gender. |
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Transgenderism |
Transsexuals and people who view themselves as a 3rd gender, transvestites, or others who believe that traditional male-Female gender classification inadequately characterizes themselves. |
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Need for achievement |
A stable, learned characteristic in which a person obtains satisfaction by striving for and achieving challenging goals. |
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Need for affiliation |
An interest in establishing and maintaining relationships with other people. |
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Need for power |
A tendency to seek impact, control, or influence over others and to be seen as a powerful individual. |