Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
195 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
- 3rd side (hint)
Categories of Abused Drugs |
Narcotics Sedatives Stimulants Hallucinogens Cannabis Alcohol |
6 |
|
Narcotics |
Tolerance: Rapid Risk of Physical Dependence: High Risk of Psychological Dependence: High Fatal Overdose Potential: High Health Risks: Infectious diseases Accidents Immune suppression |
|
|
Sedatives |
Tolerance: Rapid Risk of Physical Dependence: High Risk of Psychological Dependence: High Fatal Overdose Potential: High Health Risks: - Accidents |
|
|
Stimulants |
Tolerance: Rapid Risk of Physical Dependence: Moderate Risk of Psychological Dependence: High Fatal Overdose Potential: Moderate to High Health Risks: - Sleep problems - Malnutrition - Nasal damage - Hypertensionrespiratory disease - Stroke - Liver disease - Heart attack |
|
|
Hallucinogens |
Tolerance: Gradual Risk of Physical Dependence: None Risk of Psychological Dependence: Very Low Fatal Overdose Potential: None Very Low Health Risks: - Accidents |
|
|
Cannabis |
Tolerance: Gradual Risk of Physical Dependence: None Risk of Psychological Dependence: Low to Moderate Fatal Overdose Potential: Very Low Health Risks: - Accidents - Lung cancer - Respiratory disease - Pulmonary disease |
|
|
Alcohol |
Tolerance: Gradual Risk of Physical Dependence: Moderate Risk of Psychological Dependence: Moderate Fatal Overdose Potential: Low to High Health Risks: - Accidents - Liver disease - Malnutrition - Brain damage - Neurological disorders - Heart disease - Stroke - Hypertension - Ulcers - Cancer - Birth defects |
|
|
William James says that consciousness is… |
…a continually changing stream of mental activity. |
|
|
Processes we have intentional control over are: |
Controlled Processes |
|
|
Automatic Processes occur: |
Without our intention. |
|
|
Four bands of brain waves are: |
- Beta - Alpha - Theta - Delta |
|
|
Brain activity is measured by… |
…an EEG. |
|
|
Periodic fluctuation in physiological functioning are… |
…biological rhythms. |
|
|
The cycle of sleep and wakefulness is influenced by... |
…circadian rhythms |
|
|
What does exposure to light while sleeping do? |
It resets biological clocks by affecting the activity of the suprachiasmatic nucleus and the pineal gland. |
|
|
What is one reason for jet lag? |
Being out of sync with your circadian rhythms. |
|
|
When participating in a sleep experiment you are hooked up to: |
- EEG - EOG - EMG - Heart/Respiration/Pulse/Body Temp Monitor |
|
|
5 Stages of Sleep are: |
- Drowsy - Stage 1 - SleepStage 2 - SleepSlow-Wave Sleep (Stage 3&4) - REM Sleep |
|
|
Drowsy: |
Alpha waves prominent |
|
|
Stage 1 Sleep: |
- Theta waves prominent - 1-7 minutes - Breathing and heart rate slow - Muscle tension and body temperature decrease - Hypnic jerks (brief muscular contractions) |
|
|
Stage 2 Sleep: |
- Sleep spindles (bursts of higher-frequency brain waves) - Mixed EEG activity - 10-25 minutes - Muscle tension, body temp, heart rate, respiration rate continue to decrease (through stage 3&4 as well) |
|
|
Slow-Wave Sleep (Stage 3&4) |
- High-amplitude, low-frequency delta waves become prominent in EEG recordings - 30 minutes - Declines during adulthood |
|
|
Rapid Eye Movements (REM) |
- Stage before cycle begins again at stage 1 - Lateral eye movements - Coined by William Dement - Irregular breathing and pulse rate - Muscle tone is extremely relaxed, basically paralyzed - High-frequency beta waves - Low amplitude brain waves - Most memorable, vivid dreams occur during this stage, but there is evidence that dreams occur in other stages - Declines during childhood (levelling at 20%) |
|
|
Theories about dreams: |
Freud: Wish Fulfillment Cartwright: Problem Solving Hobson & McCarley: by-product of bursts of activity emanating from the subcortical areas in the brain |
|
|
Electroencephalograph (EEG): |
Monitors the electrical activity of the brain over time by means of recording electrodes attached to the surface of the scalp |
|
|
Beta: |
- 13-24 cycles per second - Normal waking though - Alert problem solving |
|
|
Alpha: |
- 8-12 cycles per second - Deep relaxation - Blank mind - Meditation |
|
|
Theta: |
- 4-7 cycles per second - Light sleep |
|
|
Delta: |
- Less than 4 cycles per second - Deep sleep |
|
|
Non-REM Sleep: |
- Sleep stages 1 through 4 without REM - Relatively little dreaming - Varied EEG activity |
|
|
Brain structure important to sleep and wakefulness is: |
Reticular formation in the core of the brainstem |
|
|
Ascending Reticular Activating System... |
...consists of the afferent fibres running through the reticular formation that influence physiological arousal. |
|
|
Selective Deprivation |
- Subjects were woken when they began going into REM sleep - Deprived of REM sleep |
|
|
REM Deprivation |
- Little impact on daytime functioning and task performance - Spontaneously shift into REM sleep more frequently - Spend extra time in REM periods for one to three nights to make up for their REM deprivation |
|
|
Insomnia |
- Chronic problems getting adequate sleep 1. Difficulty falling asleep 2. Difficulty remaining asleep 3. Persistent early-morning awakening |
|
|
Causes of Insomnia |
- Excessive anxiety/tension - Side effect of depression, or other emotional problems |
|
|
Treatment for Insomnia |
- Benzodiazepine (Dalmane, Halcion, Restoril) - Nonbenzodiazepine (Ambien, Sonata, Lunesta) |
|
|
Narcolepsy |
- Sudden and irresistible onsets of sleep during normal waking periods |
|
|
Sleep Apnea |
- Frequent, reflexive gasping for air that awakens a person and disrupts sleep |
|
|
Nightmares |
- Anxiety-arousing dreams that lead to awakening, usually from REM sleep |
|
|
Night Terrors |
- Abrupt awakenings from NREM sleep, accompanied by intense autonomic arousal and feelings of panic |
|
|
REM Sleep Behaviour Disorder (RBD) |
- Potentially troublesome dream enactments during REM periods |
|
|
Somnambulism (Sleepwalking) |
- Occurs when a person arises and wanders about while remaining asleep |
|
|
Lucid Dreams |
- Dreams where people can think clearly about the circumstances of waking life and the fact that they are dreaming, yet they remain asleep
|
|
|
Manifest Content |
- The plot of a dream at the surgace level |
|
|
Latent Content |
- The hidden or disguised meaning of the events in the plot |
|
|
Dissociation |
- Splitting off of mental processes into two separate, simultaneous steams of awareness |
|
|
Meditation |
- A family of practices that train attention to heighten awareness and bring mental proess under greater voluntary control |
|
|
Psychoactive Drugs |
- Chemical substances that modify mental, emotional, or behavioural fuctioning |
|
|
Narcotics Definition |
- AKA Opiates - Drugs derived from opium that are capable of relieving pain - Heroin, Morphine, Codeine, Demerol, Methadone |
|
|
Sedatives Definition |
- AKA Downers - Sleep-inducing drugs that tend to decrease central nervous system activation and behavioural activity |
|
|
Stimulants Definition |
- Drugs that tend to increase central nervous system activation and behavioural activity - Cocaine, Amphetamines |
|
|
Hallucinogens Definition |
- Drugs that have powerful effects on mental and emotional functioning, marked most prominently by distortions in sensory and perceptual experience. |
|
|
Cannabis Definition |
- The hemp plant from which marijuana, hashish, and THC are derived |
|
|
Alcohol Definition |
- Beverages containing ethyl alcohol |
|
|
Tolerance |
- A progressive decrease in person's responsiveness to a drug |
|
|
Physical Dependance |
- When a person must continue to take a drug to avoid withdrawal illness |
|
|
Physiological Dependence |
- When a person must continue to take a drug to satisfy intense mental and emotional craving for the drug |
|
|
Learning: |
A relatively durable change in behaviour or knowledge due to experience. |
|
|
Classical Conditioning (Ivan Pavlov): |
- When a natural stimulus acquires the capacity to elicit a response originally elicited by another stimulus. - Ivan Pavlov (Russian), conditioned dogs to salivate at the sound of a tone. |
|
|
Unconditioned Stimuli (USC) |
A stimulus that evokes an unconditional response without previous conditioning. |
|
|
Phobias |
Irrational fears of specific objects or situations. |
|
|
Agoraphobia |
Intense fear of being in public places where it may be difficult to escape from or in which it might be difficult to obtain help. |
|
|
Conditioning: |
Learning connections between events that occur in an organism's environment. |
|
|
Unconditioned Response (UCR): |
An unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus that occurs without previous conditioning. |
|
|
Conditioned Stimulus (CS): |
A previously neutral stimulus that has, through conditioning, acquired the capacity to evoke a conditioned response. |
|
|
Conditioned Response (CR): |
A learned reaction to a conditioned stimulus that occurs because of previous conditioning. |
|
|
Trial: |
In classical conditioning, it consists of any presentation of a stimulus or a pair of stimulus. |
|
|
Immunosuppression: |
A decrease in the production of antibodies. |
|
|
Acquisition: |
The initial stage of learning something. |
|
|
Spontaneous Recovery: |
The reappearance of an extinguished response after a period of non exposure to the conditioned stimulus.
|
|
|
Renewal Effect: |
If a response is extinguished in a different environment than it was acquired, the extinguished response will reappear if the animal is retuned to the original environment where acquisition took place. |
|
|
Stimulus Generalization: |
When an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus responds in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. |
|
|
Stimulus Discrimination: |
Occurs when an organism that has learned a response to a specific stimulus does not respond in the same way to new stimuli that are similar to the original stimulus. |
|
|
Higher-Order Conditioning: |
A conditioned stimulus functions as if it were an unconditioned stimulus. |
|
|
Preparedness: |
A species-specific predisposition to be conditioned in certain ways and not others. |
|
|
Contiguity: |
The sequential occurrence or proximity of stimulus and response, causing their association in their mind. |
|
|
Operant Conditioning (B.F. Skinner): |
A form of learning in which responses come to be controlled by their consequences. (AKA instrumental learning) |
|
|
Law of Effect: |
If a response in the presence of a stimulus leads to satisfying effects, the association between the stimulus and the response is strengthened. |
|
|
Reinforcement: |
When an event following a response increases an organism's tendency to make that response.
- strengthening a response |
|
|
Operant Chamber/Skinner Box: |
A small enclosure in which an animal can make a specific response that is recorded while the consequences of the response are systematically controlled. |
|
|
Reinforcement Contingencies: |
The circumstances or rules that determine whether responses lead to the presentation of reinforcers. |
|
|
Cumulative Recorder: |
Creates a graphic record of responding and reinforcement in a Skinner box as a function of time. |
|
|
Primary Reinforcers: |
Events that are inherently reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs. |
|
|
Secondary/Conditioned Reinforcers: |
Events that acquire reinforcing qualities by being associated with primary reinforcers. |
|
|
Shaping; |
Consists of the reinforcement of closer and closer approximations of a desired response. |
|
|
Resistance to Extinction: |
Occurs when an organism continues to make response after delivery of the reinforcer has been terminated. |
|
|
Discriminative Stimuli |
Cues that influence operant behaviour by indicating the probable consequence (reinforcement or non reinforcement) of a response. |
|
|
Schedule of Reinforcement |
Determines which occurrences of a specific response result in the presentation of a reinforcer. |
|
|
Intermittent/Partial Reinforcement
|
Occurs when a designated response is reinforced only some of the time. |
|
|
Fixed-Ratio (FR) Schedule
|
The reinforcer is given after a fixed number of nonreinforced responses.
|
|
|
Variable-Ratio (VR) Schedule
|
The reinforcer is given after a variable number of non reinforced responses.
|
|
|
Fixed-Interval (FI) Schedule
|
The reinforcer is given for the first response that occurs after a fixed time interval has elapsed.
|
|
|
Variable-Interval (VI) Schedule
|
The reinforcer is given for the first response after a variable time interval has elapsed.
|
|
|
Continuous Reinforcement |
Occurs when every instance of a designated response is reinforced.
|
|
|
Positive Reinforcement
|
Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the presentation of a rewarding stimulus.
|
|
|
Negative Reinforcement
|
Occurs when a response is strengthened because it is followed by the removal of an aversive (unpleasant) stimulus. |
|
|
Escape Learning |
An organism acquires a response that decreases or ends some aversive stimulation. |
|
|
Avoidance Learning |
An organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring. |
|
|
Punishment |
Occurs when an event following a response weakens the tendency to make that response. |
|
|
Latent Learning |
Learning that is not apparent from behaviour when it first occurs. |
|
|
Instinctive Drift |
Occurs when an animal's innate response tendencies interfere with the conditioning processes. |
|
|
Observational Learning (Albert Bandura) |
Occurs when an organism's responding is influenced by the observation of others, who are called models. |
|
|
Mirror Neurons |
Neutrons that are activated by performing an action or by seeing another monkey or person perform the same action. |
|
|
Encoding |
Forming a memory code. |
|
|
Storage |
Maintaining encoded information in memory over time. |
|
|
Retrieval |
Recovering information from memory stores. |
|
|
Attention |
Focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events. Selective attention is critical to everyday functioning. |
|
|
Levels-of-Processing-Theory |
Proposes that deeper levels of processing result in longer-lasting memory codes. |
|
|
Elaboration |
Linking a stimulus to other information at the time of encoding. |
|
|
Dual-Coding Theory |
Memory is enhanced by forming semantic an visual codes, since either can lead to recall. |
|
|
Self-Referent Encoding |
Involves deciding how or whether information is personally relevant. |
|
|
3 key process that contribute to memory: |
- Encoding - Storage - Retrieval |
|
|
Sensory Memory |
Preserves information in its original sensory form for a brief time, usually only a fraction of a second. |
|
|
Short-Term Memory (STM) |
A limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed information for up to about 20 seconds. |
|
|
Rehearsal |
The process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information. |
|
|
Chunk |
A group of familiar stimuli stored in a single unit.
|
|
|
Working Memory |
A limited capacity storage system that temporarily maintains and stores information by providing an interface between perception, memory, and action. |
|
|
Working Memory Capacity (WMC) |
Refers to one's ability to hold and manipulate information in conscious attention. |
|
|
Long-Term Memory (LTM) |
An unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time. |
|
|
Flashbulb Memories |
Unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events. |
|
|
Clustering |
The tendency to remember similar or related items in groups. |
|
|
Conceptual Hierarchy |
A multilevel classification system based on common properties among items. |
|
|
Schema |
Organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event. |
|
|
Semantic Network |
Consists of nodes representing concepts, joined together by pathways that link related concepts. |
|
|
Connectionist/Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) |
Assume that cognitive processes depend on patterns of activation in highly interconnected computational networks that resemble neural networks. |
|
|
3 Kinds of Memory Stores |
- Sensory - Short Term - Long Term |
|
|
Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon |
The temporary inability to remember something you know, accompanied by a feeling that it's just out of reach. |
|
|
Misinformation Effect |
Occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading postevent information. |
|
|
Reality Monitoring |
The process of deciding whether memories are based on external sources (one's perception of actual events) or internal sources (one's thoughts or imagination) |
|
|
Source Monitoring |
Involves making attributions about the origins of memories. |
|
|
Source Monitoring Error |
Occurs when a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source. |
|
|
Destination Memory |
Recalling to whom one has told what. |
|
|
Forgetting Curve |
Graphs retention and forgetting over time. |
|
|
Retention |
The proportion of material remembered. |
|
|
Recall Measure of Retention |
Requires subjects to reproduce information on their won without any cues.
|
|
|
Recognition Measure of Retention |
Requires subjects to select previously learned information from an array of options. |
|
|
Relearning Measure of Retention |
Requires a subject to memorize information a second time to determine how much time or how many practice trials are saved by having learned it before. |
|
|
Decay Theory |
Proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time. |
|
|
Interference Theory |
Proposes that people forget information because of competition from other material. |
|
|
Retroactive Interference |
Occurs when new information impairs the retention of previously learned information. |
|
|
Proactive Interference |
Occurs when previously learned information interferes with the retention of new information. |
|
|
The Encoding Specificity Principle |
The value of retrieval cue depends on how well it corresponds to the memory code. |
|
|
Transfer-Appropriate Processing |
Occurs when the initial processing of information is similar to the the of precessing required by the subsequent measure of retention. |
|
|
Repression |
Keeping distressing thoughts and feelings buries in the unconscious. |
|
|
Seven Sins of Memory (Daniel Schacter) |
- Transcience - Absentmindedness - Blocking - Misattribution - Suggestibility - Bias - Persistence |
|
|
Long-Term Potential (LTP)
|
A long-lasting increase in neural excitability at synapses along a specific neural pathway. |
|
|
Retrograde Amnesia |
The loss of memories for events that occurred prior to the onset of amnesia. |
|
|
Anterograde Amnesia |
The loss of memories for events that occur after the onset of amnesia. |
|
|
Consolidation |
A hypothetical process involving the gradual conversion of information into durable memory codes stores in long-term memory. |
|
|
Implicit Memory |
Apparent when retention is exhibited on a task that does not require intentional remembering. |
|
|
Explicit Memory |
Involves intentional recollection of previous experiences. |
|
|
Declarative Memory |
System that handles factual information. |
|
|
Non-declarative/Procedural Memory |
System that houses memory for actions, skills, operations, and conditioned responses. |
|
|
Episodic Memory System |
Made up of chronological, or temporally dated, recollections of personal experiences. |
|
|
Semantic Memory System |
Contains general knowledge that is not tied to the time when the information was learned. |
|
|
Prospective Memory |
Remembering to perform actions in the future. |
|
|
Retrospective Memory |
Remembering events from the past or previously learned information. |
|
|
Mnemonic Devices |
Methods used to increase the recall of information. |
|
|
Serial-Position Effect |
When subjects show better recall for items at the beginning and end of a list that for items in the middle. |
|
|
Cognition |
The mental process involved in acquiring knowledge. |
|
|
Language |
Symbols that convert meaning plus rules for combining those symbols, that can be used to generate an infinite variety of messages. |
|
|
Phonemes |
The smallest speech units in a language that can be distinguished perceptually. |
|
|
Morphemes |
The smallest units of meaning in a language |
|
|
Semantics |
The area of language concerned with understanding the meaning of words and work combinations. |
|
|
Syntax |
A system of rules that specify how words can be arranged into sentences. |
|
|
Fast Mapping |
When children map a word onto an underlying concept after only one exposure.
|
|
|
Overextension |
When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a wider set of objects or actions than it is meant to. e.g. calls everything that is round a ball |
|
|
Underextention |
When a child incorrectly uses a word to describe a narrower set of objects or actions than it is meant to. e.g. calls only one specific doll "doll" |
|
|
Telegraphic Speech |
Consists mainly of content words; articles, prepositions, and other less critical words are omitted. |
|
|
Over-regularizations |
When grammatical rules are incorrectly generalized to irregular cases where they do not apply. |
|
|
Metalinguistic Awareness |
The ability to reflect on the use of language. |
|
|
Bilingualism |
Acquisition of two languages that use different speech sounds, vocabulary, and grammatical rules. |
|
|
Language Acquisition Device (LAD) |
An innate mechanism or process that facilitates the learning of language. |
|
|
Linguistic Relativity |
The hypothesis that one's language determines the nature of one's thoughts. |
|
|
Problem Solving
|
Refers to active efforts to discover what must be done to achieve a goal that is not readily attainable. |
|
|
Insight |
The sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trained and error. |
|
|
Functional Fixedness |
The tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use. |
|
|
Mental Set |
When people press in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past. |
|
|
Problem Spave |
Refers to the set of possible pathways to a solution considered by the problem solver. |
|
|
Trail and Error |
Trying possible solutions and discarding those that are in error until one works. |
|
|
Algorithm |
A methodical, step-by-step procedure for trying all possible alternatives in searching for a solution to a problem. |
|
|
Heuristic |
A guiding principle or "rule of thumb" used in solving problems or making decisions. |
|
|
Incubation Effect |
When new solutions surface for a previously unsolved problem after a period of not consciously thinking about the problem.
|
|
|
Field Dependence-Independence |
Individuals' tendency to rely primarily on external versus internal frames of reference when orienting themselves in space |
|
|
Risky Decision Making |
Involves making choices under conditions of uncertainty. |
|
|
Availability Heuristic |
Involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind. |
|
|
Representativeness Heuristic |
Involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that event. |
|
|
Conjunction Fallacy |
Occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening. |
|
|
Behavioural Economics |
Field of study that examines the effects of humans' actual (not idealized) decision-making processes on economics decisions. |
|
|
Theory of Bounded Rationality |
Asserts that people tend to use simple strategies in decision making that focus on only a few facets of available options and often result in "irrational" decisions that are less than optimal. |
|
|
Gambler's Fallacy |
The belief that the odds of a change event increase if the event hasn't occurred recently. |
|
|
Confirmation Bias |
The tendency to seek information that supports one's decisions and beliefs while ignoring disconfirming information. |
|
|
Myside Bias |
The tendency to evaluate evidence in a manner slanted in favour of one's own opinions. |
|
|
Belief Perseverance |
The tendency to hang on to beliefs in the face of contradictory evidence. |
|