Psych Test Chapters 7-10

Front 1

What are the three basic human memory processes?

Back 1

encoding, storage, retrieval

Front 2

what is encoding?

Back 2

-involves forming a memory code
ex. entering data through a keyboard

Front 3

what is storage?

Back 3

-involves maintaining encoded information in memory over time
ex.saving data in file on hard disk

Front 4

what is retrieval?

Back 4

-involves recovering information from memory stores
ex. calling up a file and displaying data on a moniter

Front 5

what is attention?

Back 5

attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events
-the selection of input
-you generally need to pay attention to information if you intend to remember it.
-attention involves focusing awareness on a narrowed range of stimuli or events

Front 6

what are the levels of processing in encoding?

Back 6

structural, phonemic, semantic
-the deeper the processing, the longer lasting the memory code!

Front 7

what is structural encoding?

Back 7

-it emphasizes the physical structure of the stimulus

Front 8

what is phonemic encoding?

Back 8

-it emphasizes what a word sounds like

Front 9

what is semantic encoding?

Back 9

-it emphasizes the meaning of verbal input and involves thinking about the objects and actions that the words represent

Front 10

iatrogenic

Back 10

a medical disorder caused by the diagnosis, manner, or treatment of a physician

Front 11

sensory memory

Back 11

-brief preservation of information in original sensory form
-visual/auditory- last approx. 1/4 of a second
-this type of memory allows the sensation to linger briefly after the sensory stimulation is over

Front 12

short-term memory

Back 12

-defined as a limited-capacity store that can maintain unrehearsed info for up to 20 seconds
-stm has a limited duration- information can only be kept there for a brief amount of time before it is lost, unless rehearsal occurs
rehearsal- the process of repetitively verbalizing or thinking about the information-keeping it in use

Front 13

Baddeley's model of working memory

Back 13

-consists of 4 components
1. Phonological rehearsal loop:- used to temporarily rehearse information
2. Visuospatial sketchpad:- used to hold and manipulate visual images
3. Executive control system:- Controls attention
4. Episodic buffer:- storage space used to integrate the work of the different components and provide and interface with long term memory

Front 14

Long-term memory:

Back 14

-an unlimited capacity store that can hold information over lengthy periods of time
-LTM has an unlimited capacity, but it isn't 100% permanent, which is why memories fade over time

Front 15

flash-bulb memories

Back 15

unusually vivid and detailed recollections of momentous events

Front 16

schemas/their role in long-term memory

Back 16

schema: an organized cluster of knowledge about a particular object or event abstracted from previous experience with the object or event
-usually, we remember best the thing NOT in our schema (like the weird cheese in the grocery list)

Front 17

sematic networks/ their role in long term memory

Back 17

sematic networks:consist of nodes representing concepts joined together by pathways that link related concepts
-this explains why thinking about butter helps you remember bread better

Front 18

retrieval cues

Back 18

stimuli that help gain access to memories- such as hints, related info, or partial recollections

Front 19

context clues

Back 19

-often facilitate the retrieval of information. ex. when you go back to a town you haven't been in a while you get a ton of memories about it.

Front 20

misinformation effect

Back 20

occurs when participants' recall of an event they witnessed is altered by introducing misleading, post event information

Front 21

source monitoring

Back 21

-source monitoring is the process of making inferences about the origins of memories

Front 22

source monitoring error

Back 22

- a memory derived from one source is misattributed to another source

Front 23

repression

Back 23

refers to the keeping of distressing thoughts and feelings buried in the unconscious.

Front 24

support of repressed memories

Back 24

-many researchers take repressed memories at face value, and that is IS common for young children and even adults to repress traumatizing events from the past

Front 25

skepticism of repressed memories

Back 25

-some researchers believe that you should not accept repressed memories at face value because it has been proven that false memories CAN be created

Front 26

three theories of forgetting

Back 26

Ineffective encoding
decay theory
interference theory

Front 27

ineffective encoding

Back 27

-sometimes you feel like you have forgotten something, when in reality you never really remembered it in the first place.
-sometimes called pseudo-forgetting, and is usually due to lack of attention

Front 28

decay theory

Back 28

proposes that forgetting occurs because memory traces fade with time
-if it is true, we forget because of the passage of time
-although this hasn't been proven

Front 29

interference theory

Back 29

proposes people forget infomation because of competition from other material
two types: retroactive and proactive

Front 30

retroactive interference

Back 30

the new info impairs the ability to to retain the old info

Front 31

proactive interference

Back 31

the old info prevents the retention of new info

Front 32

hippocampus

Back 32

-has a major roll in memory
-people with extensive damage to the hippocampus are UNABLE to form or retain new memories
-Alzheimer's disease

Front 33

procedural memory

Back 33

houses memory for actions, skills, conditioned responses, and emotional memories

Front 34

declarative memory

Back 34

handles factual information
2 parts: semantic and episodic

Front 35

semantic

Back 35

general facts that are not time bound(meaning they are not tied to the time when the information was learned.)

Front 36

episodic

Back 36

personal facts that are time bound, autobiographical memory

Front 37

what are the three types of problems proposed by Greeno?

Back 37

1.problems of inducing structure
2.problems of arrangement
3.problems of transformation

Front 38

problems of inducing structure

Back 38

problems where people are required to discover relations among numbers, words, symbols, or ideas
ex. series completion problems, and analogy problems

Front 39

problems of arrangement

Back 39

where people arrange the parts of a problem in a way that satisfies come criterion.
-the parts can usually be arranged in many ways
ex.string problems/anagrams
- these types of problems are often solved by insight, a sudden discovery of the correct solution following incorrect attempts based primarily on trial and error

Front 40

problems of transformation

Back 40

the person must carry out a sequence of transformation in order to reach a specific goal
ex. water jar problem

Front 41

what are the 4 common barriers to effective problem solving?

Back 41

1.irrelevant information
2.functional fixedness
3.mental set
4.unnecessary constraints

Front 42

irrelevant information

Back 42

information added to confuse you that really has nothing to do with the problem asked

Front 43

functional fixedness

Back 43

the tendency to perceive an item only in terms of its most common use- basically the inability to think outside the box!

Front 44

mental set

Back 44

exists when people persist in using problem solving strategies that have worked in the past.

Front 45

unnecessary constraints-

Back 45

not being able to think outside the box. giving yourself restraints when they aren't actually present

Front 46

representativeness heuristic

Back 46

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on how similar it is to the typical prototype of that.
-ignoring base rates.

Front 47

availability heuristic

Back 47

involves basing the estimated probability of an event on the ease with which relevant instances come to mind
ex. estimating divorce rate by recalling the number of divorces among your friends parents

Front 48

conjunction fallacy

Back 48

occurs when people estimate that the odds of two uncertain events happening together are greater than the odds of either event happening alone
-also due to the powerful nature of the representative heuristic

Front 49

Binet

Back 49

made key breakthrough in 1904 regarding intelligence tests
-had "mental ages" which was like if a 4 year old acted like a 6 year old during the test their mental age was 6, not 4

Front 50

Terman

Back 50

revised Binet's test. Termans test used intelligence quotients. He divided the childs mental age by their chronological age and multiplied by 100. you were normal if you had a 100 because that meant your mental age and actual age were the same

Front 51

Wechsler

Back 51

was the first to devise an instrument to measure intelligence in adults. He is credited with two innovations in IQ testing. 1st his scales give more emphasis to nonverbal reasoning, yielding a verbal IQ, a performance IQ, and a full-scale IQ. 2nd he devised a new scoring system based on the normal distribution

Front 52

reliability

Back 52

refers to the measurement of consistency of a test. a reliable test produces the same results over and over again and has a high correlation when comparing two tests
-most modern IQ tests report reliable info, correlations are usually +.9
-although problems with patients such as low motivation and high anxiety can affect the results

Front 53

validity

Back 53

refers to the ability of a test to measure what it was designed to measure
-IQ tests validly measure the kind of intelligence necessary to do well in academic work, but they focus narrowly on a specific type of intelligence.
-they are good at predicting academics, but not social or practical intelligence

Front 54

sternberg

Back 54

argues that intelligence is a culturally defined concept. he says different manifestations of intelligent behavior are valued in different contexts
asserts that there are three aspects of intelligence
1.analytical intelligence
2.creative intelligence
3.practical intelligence

Front 55

Gardner

Back 55

said that IQ tests are too narrow in focus, and that they generally focus on verbal and mathematical skills and exclude other important skills.
-came up with human intelligences(linguistic, spatial

Front 56

developmental psychology

Back 56

the scientific study of how people change and how they stay the same (continuity) over their lifespan
-main focus is on development during childhood6

Front 57

in what two ways do we change?

Back 57

1.quantitative:height, weight, etc
2.qualitative: our sense of "who we are"(identity)

Front 58

continuity

Back 58

some basic personality characteristics don't change much over a lifespan(temperament)

Front 59

development

Back 59

the sequence of age-related changes that occur as a person progresses from conception to death

Front 60

nature vs nurture

Back 60

nature=genetics affects personality
nurture=how you were raised affects personality

Front 61

Piaget

Back 61

asserted that interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think
proposed 3 stages:
1.preoperational
2.concrete operational
3.formal operational

Front 62

preoperational stage

Back 62

2-7 years
-development of symbolic thought continues
-at 4 years old the child can understand most sentences, uses sentences longer than 4 words, can say their name, knows their sex and age, and uses pronouns
limitations:no mastery of conservations-they don't understand that physical quantities remain constant even when they change shape or appearance

Front 63

concrete operational stage

Back 63

7-11 years
-mental operations still applied only to images of tangible objects
-mastery of conservations (decentration reversability)
-mastery of heirarchical classification

Front 64

nature vs nurture

Back 64

nature=genetics affects personality
nurture=how you were raised affects personality

Front 65

infant-mother attachment

Back 65

attachement: refers to the close, emotional bonds that develop between infants and their caregivers
-infants attachment is NOT instant when they are born
-by 6/8 months, babies have an intense attachment to their mothers
-

Front 66

Piaget

Back 66

asserted that interaction with the environment and maturation gradually alter the way children think
proposed 4 stages:
1.sensorimotor
1.preoperational
2.concrete operational
3.formal operational

Front 67

preoperational stage

Back 67

2-7 years
-development of symbolic thought continues
-at 4 years old the child can understand most sentences, uses sentences longer than 4 words, can say their name, knows their sex and age, and uses pronouns
limitations:no mastery of conservations-they don't understand that physical quantities remain constant even when they change shape or appearance

Front 68

concrete operational stage

Back 68

7-11 years
-mental operations still applied only to images of tangible objects
-mastery of conservations (decentration reversability)
-mastery of heirarchical classification

Front 69

formal operational

Back 69

11-adulthood
-mental operations applied to abstract ideas (7th grade algebra)
-logical systematic thinking/problem solving (instead of simple trial and error)

Front 70

sensorimotor stage

Back 70

birth-2 years
coordination of sensory imput and motor responses
-development of object permanence

Front 71

kohlberg

Back 71

devised a stage theory of moral development based upon subjects' responses to presented moral dilemmas
-he was not interested in a persons answer, just their answer
-theorized three levels of moral development
1.preconventional
2.conventional
3.postconventional

Front 72

preconventional

Back 72

children at this level think in terms of external authority

Front 73

conventional

Back 73

see rules as necessary for maintaining social order. accept the rules as their own, they internalize the rules to be virtuous and win approval from others

Front 74

postconventional

Back 74

involves working out a personal code of ethics