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88 Cards in this Set
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Behaviorism |
more than a system of psychology spilled into literature, philosophy, political science, sociology. founder: John B. Watson philosophical roots = ancient Greek atomic theory (only the atoms and the void are real) |
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Ivan Sechenov |
Pavlov's immediate predecessor founder of Russian physiology wrote the first "objective psychology" based on natural science his system was based on materialistic monism fundamental unit of study = the reflex, consisting of: 1) afferent activity 2) central connective processes 3) efferent activity radical environmentalism (learning over heredity) |
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Ivan Pavlov |
won Nobel Prize interested in salivation dogs produce when presented with food reward salivation at mere SIGHT of reward = "action at a distance" or "psychical reflex" psychical reflex could be unconditioned or conditioned (permanently subject to fluctuation) nervous activity consists of: inhibition & excitation |
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Pavlov's basic paradigm |
an unconditioned stimulus (UCS) produces an unconditioned response (UCR) a conditioned stimulus (CS) used to be neutral, but after repeated pairings with the UCS, it produced a conditioned response (CR) |
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Pavlov: 1) delay conditioning 2) simultaneous conditioning 3) trace conditioning |
1) conditioning = best when CS precedes UCS by fraction of a second 2) CS & UCS paired at same time = less efficient 3) CS & UCS are initially paired, but then the temporal interval between them is increased (CS precedes UCS) |
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Pavlov key research areas |
1) Extinction: CS repeatedly presented without UCS, reverses conditioning process 2) Spontaneous recovery: following a period of rest, the CS may again elicit the CR 3) Disinhibition: CS is associated with inhibition. A UCS will be exciting & release inhibition, causing salivation. 4) Stimulus generalisation: stimuli similar to CS may also elicit CR 5) Discrimination: dog learns to salivate to a circle, not eclipse. Can be used to test discriminatory capacity of animals 6) Temperament: inhibition & excitation distributed in different temperaments. 4 types 7) Experimental neurosis: stress producing situations result in "ultramaximal inhibition" (+ 3 different after-effects) |
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Pavlov: "ultramaximal inhibition" + 3 different after-effects |
shock-like symptoms like unresponsiveness or stereotyped responding 3 after effects: 1) equivalent phase: dog responds with same amount of saliva regardless strength of a stimulus 2) paradoxical phase: strong stimulus produces a weak response and vice versa 3) ultra-paradoxical phase (radical shift in personality & response system after trauma): stimuli that previously produced a positive response, produce a negative response and vice versa |
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Galen: 4 general types of temperament |
1) choleric: quick tempered, excess excitation 2) sanguine: warm, balance of excit. & inhib. 3) phlegmatic: not easily excited, balance of excit. & inhib. 4) melancholic: depressed, excess inhibition Pavlov believed balanced types (2, 3) = more resistant to stress |
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Pavlov & problem solving |
conflict with Gestalt psychology Koehler (Gestalt): primates show evidence of true insight, achieved not trough mechanical means = holistic approach Pavlov: mechanistic & reductionistic approach |
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Bekhterev Kornilov |
advanced an objective psychology based on idea that REFLEX = fundamental category of inquiry = reflexology importance of social and economic forces in shaping human reactions = reactology |
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Edward Lee Thorndike |
precursor to behaviourism, but he remained sympathetic to functionalism but favoured an objective psychology with focus on observable behaviour (behaviourism) = America's most productive psychologist pioneer in study of animal behaviour, developed "early learning theory" = connectionism (studied cats) one foot in camp of associationists/empiricists (Hartley, Locke), one foot in camp of Galton, who emphasized heredity. confirmed heredity plays powerful role (twin research) |
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Thorndike's "early learning theory" or connectionism |
while learning to escape from 15 different puzzle boxes, the cats exhibited random behaviour, like "trial & error" but in time, irrelevant movements dropped out and a specific sequence of action ensued learning involves strengthening connections (one of earliest S-R psychologies) formulated "law of exercise": connections are strengthened through use or repetition, and weakened through disuse formulated: "law of effect":connections are strengthened or weakened depending on their consequences --> reformulated to: truncated law of effect (doubt about punishment as a means of weakening connections) |
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Thorndike & transfer of learning |
collaborated with Robert Woodsworth on transfer of training: before: "doctrine of formal discipline": certain academic subjects (i.e. latin) improved intellectual ability in general (mind = mental muscle, strengthened by exercise) Thorndike & Woodsworth: "identical elements transfer theory": the degree of similarity between 2 tasks establishes the amount of transfer between them Investigated effects of a variety of high school courses on subsequent problem solving activity: found suprisingly small transfer effects of various subjects on problem-solving. now educators emphasized relationship between content in school and demands of daily life. |
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Thorndike & industrial psych |
encouraged research on worker satisfaction & dissatisfaction interested in ways to humanize capitalism published research on psychology of labor & of the profit motive |
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John B. Watson |
Angell = mentor & father figure founder of behaviourism Inspired by Pavlovian conditioning, he designed behaviourism as an alternative to Titchener's introspection & Freud's psychoanalysis affair with graduate student --> controversy. Went into advertising/sales and died wealthy. |
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Watson's criticisms of older psychologies |
1) divisions of consciousness are arbitrary 2) psychology is too human centered 3) introspection = unreliable & esoteric 4) older psychologies are dualistic |
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Watson's psychology |
psychology = a behavioural science = a purely objective, experimental branch of natural science; closest to physiology psychology's goal = prediction & control of behaviour prediction & control can be achieved through environmental conditions methods: unlike introspection, he relied on quantification & standardization central concept = habit personality = a complex system of habits and habit conflicts can lead to weaknesses in personality or even illness |
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Watson & fear conditioning |
Little Albert: white rat presented with loud noise --> conditioned emotional response to the rat (cried & crawled away). he also showed this response to similar objects (rabbit, fur coat, dog) Later, he supervised research of Mary Jones, involving elimination/extinction of fear --> important for later behavioural therapies |
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Watson & emotions |
infant have only 3 responses: fear, rage, love these = broad & undifferentiated response patterns which are later differentiated in specific ways through conditioning |
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Watson & instinct |
changed his opinion defined as: a hereditary pattern reaction, its elements are muscle movements 1) early: "there are 3 kinds of instincts" 2) then: "there is no clear separation between instincts and emotions" 3) later: "there are no instincts, what is important is conditioning & habit" |
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Watson on thinking & speech |
thinking: much mystery around the mind (because it cannot be observed), but natural science approach to thinking is possible & productive speech: as we learn to do sth, we learn the specific language & vocab of that activity: words can substitute for actions/objects believed we speak with our whole body (brain does not work in isolation from body) when kids play alone they often talk to themselves, in time this talk is transferred "inside" = thought/cognition thinking = subvocal speech do we think only in words? yes, or in word substitutes (i.e. a shoulder shrug) |
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Cognitive revolution in the 1950's & 60's |
psychologists who once focused on study of mental processes via introspection, moved on to the study of behaviour via more objective methods. |
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Behaviorism & Learning |
learning = foundational to psychology study of learning = a means of understanding & controlling behaviour |
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Operationism |
developed by Percy Bridgman points to importance of precision & clarity in behaviourism =a programmatic attempt to tie scientific terms to measurements of an experiment i.e. you can measure a concept like "hunger drive" in terms of (operatinalized into) hours of food deprivation challenged the idea of absolute meanings. All meaning is relative criticism: 1) it merely provides a label 2) the idea that measurement points to sth beyond itself influenced neobehaviourism |
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logical positivism |
strong emphasis on precision & clarity neobehaviourists were in accord with logical positivism the ultimate basis of knowledge rests upon public experimental verification or confirmation rather than upon personal experience. also called: critical/scientific empiricism grew out of school of philosophy: Vienna Circle (promoted a unified science devoid of metaphysical concepts) |
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Neo behaviorism & experimentation |
Neo behaviorism in 30s, 40s, 50s produced outpouring of research criticism: employ powerful methodologies to explore trivial problems. response: it is better to understand trivial processes than to have speculative knowledge of more complex ones (--> basic experiments) |
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Mc Dougall |
early behaviorist emphasis on activity, conduct & behaviour psychology should study both experience (mental events) and behaviour central feature of psychology = goal seeking = "hormic" (urge) wanted to reconcile a purposive mind with a deterministic body pluralistic methodology one of the first to emphasize importance of social psychology |
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Holt |
influenced by William James mentor to Tolman & Gibson his view of behaviour was more broad than Watson's: organisms are goal directed and goal-directed activity is based on purposes, wishes and plans. emphasis on "molar behaviour" = purposive/goal directed behaviour (molar = large behavioural units, things organisms do, i.e. building a nest) |
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Hunter |
avoided extreme positions marked with terms like "nothing but", "all", "every". preferred "anthroponomy" to "psychology" because of the latter's mentalistic connotations. open to variety of methods most famous research: delayed reactions in animals & children: cats and dogs only made the correct response (get the food) as long as they displayed their bodily orienting response. If the delay is so long as to them losing their orienting actions, they will "forget" and not get the food. = a way of testing cognitive processes |
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Liberals of the behaviourist movement? |
Holt & Hunter |
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Karl Lashley |
influenced by Watson, sympathetic to behaviourism focused on specific problems in learning major interest: cerebral localisation of learning & discrimination (--> his work would better fit into Gestalt tradition) |
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Lashley on the cerebral localisation of learning & discrimination |
prior it was believed that brain functions involve point-by-point connections (like a telephone switchboard) Lashley taught an animal a habit & then lesioned various areas in the cortex --> found no evidence for localisation of function for learning tasks --> found that certain functions (esp. sensory & motor) are realized --> found no evidence for a learning center |
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2 principles that grew out of Lashley's work: 1) Mass action 2) Equipotentiality |
1) Mass action: rate, effciency and accuracy of learning depends on amount of cortex available (site of brain injury = less important than amount of brain that's injured) 2) Equipotentiality: one part of the cortex can take over function of another part |
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Clark Hull |
leading figure in experimental psych from 1930-50 because: he presented his ideas with an unknown degree of rigor and analytic detail his approach = mathematical & deductive interest in aptitude testing & hypnosis central figure in developing quantitative approaches to behaviour: focus on stimuli & response, but also intervening variables (drive, fatigue, strength, incentive) |
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stimulus intensity dynamism |
= V = a term in one of Hull's formulas = some stimuli have stronger influence on behaviour than others Hull's formula indicates that reaction potential = a joint, multiplicative function of habit strength (H), drive strength (D), nature of stimulus (V) and incentive motvation (K) Hull's formula's were suggestive & predictive |
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Hull & reinforcement: |
law of reinforcement = stimuli that reduce drive stimuli are reinforcing secondary reinforcement = any stimulus consistently paired with primary reinforcer, takes on reinforcing properties |
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Hull & extinction |
reactive inhibition: each response generates some inhibition as an after-effect. It dissipated with time & it is increased when responses require higher effort, or when many responses are required close in time conditioned inhibition: build up during dissipation of "reactive inhibition". The dissipation of "reactive inhibition" is reinforcing (includes permanent extinction) |
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Hull & insight |
learning = continuous did not deny terms like insight, purpose, intention but wanted to show that these are only secondary principles |
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Hull & Learning |
reinforcement plays crucial role in learning his theory accounts for learning in terms of complex interactions of a variety of variables. |
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Appraisal of Hull's theory |
the rigor of his approach was both a strength & a weakness criticism: sterile, artificial, irrelevant to real-life problems |
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Edward Guthrie |
unlike Hull & Tolman, he avoided technical language & formal theory construction believed that such constructions hampered search for new knowledge general skepticism towards deductively proven "truths" believed reinforcement has no direct logical or causal relationship to learning |
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Guthrie's law of contiguity |
= the only law of learning we learn, when stimuli are arranged in a way that allows them to act as effective cues for a desired response contiguity = necessary condition for learning and based on close temporal/spatial conjunction. A reinforcer has nothing to do with learning per se, but it acts as a strong stimulus and it keeps the organism in a situation where the necessary cues are available |
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Guthrie & learning |
learning occurs in one trial response = actually many smaller responses stimulus = also a multifaceted affair we learn in one trial but sometimes many small connections must be established to produce the appropriate response. connections made in one trial are not always visible emphasized importance of recency in learning situations |
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Guthrie & extinction |
extinction = really new learning What's important for extinction is important for all learning: contiguity of stimulus & response |
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Appraisal of Guthrie |
weakness of his theory - its anecdotal nature may also be a strength: concerned with transitions from laboratory to the world. --> real life problems some of his students later formalised his theory so it could be subjected to experimental scrutiny |
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Edward Tolman |
developed new formula of behaviourism: cognitive behaviourism --> greater sensitivity to real-life problems accepted behaviour as the subject matter of psychology, but rejected Wundt's stark system of stimulus-response. enjoyed many honors in his life time forerunner of cognitive psychology called his system: molar behaviourism in contrast to Watson's molecular behaviourism. Molar = large units, global behaviour seen in everyday life. also called it "purposive behaviourism" (behaviour = goal directed) molar behaviour = not like a reflex, it is teachable (docile), purposeful and cognitive |
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Tolman & intervening variables |
believed psychological processes intervene between stimulus & response = intervening variables |
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Tolman & reinforcement |
distinguished between learning & performance classic experiments on latent learning: rats in maze, some get food reward after each successful run, some don't get any rewards. When food was placed in the box for the rats that hadn't been rewarded previously, their speed & error scores improved dramatically. --> there is latent learning during the non/rewarded trials |
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Toman & extinction |
when stimuli no longer have value, expectation changes and so does response. experiments on latent extinction have provided evidence for cognitive interpretations of extinction. extinction results from changing conditions that are influenced by stimuli in the environment (opposite of Hull's response-produced inhibition theory) subjects who were exposed to the now empty reward box before the extinction trials began, extinguished faster later --> latent extinction |
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Tolman & Cognitive Maps |
stimulus-stimulus connection are vital for concept of cognitive map how do we get from A to B? have we learned a complicated chain of stimulus-response connections? No, we learn a cognitive map. at first it includes only a vague sense of location and layout, plus many possible pathways connecting various locations |
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Tolman & Insight |
avoided the term, but was friendly to its meaning realized that learning is often marked by radical discontinuities |
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Appraisal of Tolman |
1) provided the intellectual spadework for the cognitive movement in 50's 2) his work was a springboard for developments in the 50's/60's in: motivation, clinical, neuropsychology, mathematical learning theory 3) fist to publish research on selective breeding for maze learning in rats 4) his work is one of the most important bridges between classical behaviourism & psychology of today |
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Skinner |
pleasant childhood, no punishments inspired by: Darwin, Morgan, Thorndike, Pavlov, Watson behaviour = lawful, notion of free will = counterproductive to science & society followed Bacon's inductivist tradition! (denied that he constructed hypotheses or tested formal theories/models. Focused on descriptive observations of behaviour instead of grandiose theory production) first used term "behaviour therapy" father of applied behaviour analysis |
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Behaviourism was dominant when? |
1920's - 50's by the 60's: growing consensus that their vision was too narrow |
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Skinner & operant conditioning |
introduced "operant" as alternative to Pavlov's "respondent conditioning" Pavlov looked at relationships between conditioned & unconditioned stimuli Skinner looked at the relation of the response & reinforcement. it involved modifying behaviour as a consequence of reinforcement. any consequence that increased probability of future response = a reinforcer similarity to Thorndike (reward over punishment) Skinner box: animal learned sth and could be rewarded through food dispenser |
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Skinner & verbal behaviour |
verbal behaviour = learned & modified by ensuing consequences critics like Chomsky: too simplistic & reductionistic (Chomsky: nativism, Skinner: environment) |
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Skinner: developmental & educational psych |
invented air-crib (large well-lit chamber with temp. control for child rearing) interested in children education: proposed programmed instruction designed programs with immediate feedback for each student response --> self-paced mastery of the subject Unfortunately negotiations collapsed, project was never realized |
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Skinner & Military |
project pigeon research his most unconventional idea trained pigeons to operate an armed glider = an automated bomber results were disappointing & government stopped funding |
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Skinner & Walden Two |
Walden Two = a book by Skinner (= life ina hyoptehtical colony designed by behavioural engineering inspired the creation of an experimental community (1967, Virginia) only marginally successful, but led him to reformulate role of motivation, education & sexuality |
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Criticisms of Skinner |
1) criticism from scientific community (i.e. Chomsky): too simplistic 2) blamed for a mechanistic science that dehumanizes the individual |
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Gestalt psychology |
started 1910 golden era in 1920's challenged Wundt's elementary system as well as behaviourism. founded by Max Wertheimer, as well as Koehler & Koffka |
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Max Wertheimer |
extended Gestalt vision into humanistic concerns, like truth, ethics, democracy & freedom his Gestalt vision was a worldview |
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Wolfgang Koehler |
his work in Tenerife resulted in classic work of Gestalt tradition" The Mentality of Apes" --> helped shape comparative psychology in Germany found that Apes solve problems in insightful (!) ways! heroic struggles against Nazis published "Gestalt psychology" |
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Kurt Koffka |
discovered Gestalt psychology while studying with Wertheimer & Koehler. published "growth of the mind" --> showed relevance of Gestalt principles to developmental psychology published "Principles of Gestalt psychology" = major systematic treatise on Gestalt system first to write on Gestalt psychology in English |
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Gestalt background: philosophy |
Immanuel Kant: mental processes are organized in an a priori fashion and are not always the results of mechanical associations. Instead ordering principles interact with sensory experience. Gestalt theory should not be placed in either rationalist or empirical traditions emphasis on conjunctions, meanings, patterns in the natural flow of experience (instead of: meaningful experiences are built from separate mechanical elements, held together by glue of association. sensitive to context of observer & "frame of reference". Inspired by Einstein's work on electrodynamics of moving bodies |
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Ehrenfels |
form qualities are different from the elements from which they are composed the whole is more than the sum of its parts |
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Gestalt school vs. Jamesian approach |
Agreed on: 1) James's attacks on atomism & his radical empiricism 2) begin with experience 3) methodological pluralism Disagreed on much else!! |
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Phi Phenomenon |
Gestalt tradition, Max Wertheimer = apparent movement (2 lights on 2 different locations at slightly different times --> illusion of movement) = demonstration that quality of the whole is DIFFERENT from the sum of its parts |
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Koffka's Perceptual Gestalt Principles "why do things look the way they do" |
1) figure-ground 2) similarity 3) proximity 4) closure 5) good continuation |
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Law of Praegnanz |
perceptual organization = as good as possible under prevailing conditions we see our world as orderly and coherent as the conditions allow |
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Wertheimer on Thinking |
reproductive thinking = repetition, conditioning, drills, habits productive thinking = new ideas, insights, breakthroughs. Is based on capacity to grasp structural features and envision structural reorganization. |
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Learning in the Gestalt tradition |
ask subject to select the darker one of 2 squares. Choosing the darker one correctly yields a reward. phase 2: the formerly rewarded square is now paired with a new, darker square. Subjects chose the darker square, even though it was not associated with the reward --> what is learned is the relational discrimination (darker than) rather than a response to a reward (behaviourism) |
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Koffka on Learning |
much of early learning = sensory motor learning a great deal of learning occurs by imitation highest type of learning = ideational learning, which makes use of language. |
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Gestalt tradition & method |
accused established psychologies to overemphasise quantitative methods while ignoring qualitative considerations Koehler: concerned that psychologists would conduct elegant but fruitless experiments (o.e. in psychophysics) methodology should be adapted to the subject matter As with Jamesian psychology, Gestalt science found inspiration in vision, not method. |
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Gestalt perspective mind-brain problem |
= isomorphism = structural correspondance between experience & underlying brain processes common erroneous belief: pictures in our head correspond to physical structures It does not refer to a correspondance between physical events & brain processes, but rather to the relationship between EXPERIENCE and brain processes |
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The authority of the gestalt approach was felt in 3 ways: |
1) systematic approaches to sub-disciplinary areas inspired by Gestalt psychology 2) Gestalt concepts found their way into mainstream psyc textbooks 3) Gestalt findings served as powerful stimulus for other systems |
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Kurt Lewin |
broadened Gestalt perspective to include motivation, personality, social psychology, conflict resolution. he was an intellectual democrat (like William James) and characterized by his openness developed "field theory" (interdependence of person & environment) |
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Lewin's psychology |
developed "field theory" (interdependence of person & environment) B= f (p,e) behaviour is a function of person AND environment key concept = life space = every psychological fact that is influential to a person at a given time |
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Lewin's "life space" |
= every psychological fact that is influential to a person at a given time consists of physical events, personal/biographical facts and social facts. goal of education = to extend the life space in the life space, objects have positive or negative features, called "valences". Valences fluctuate with needs. led to his work on conflicts |
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Lewin: common types of conflict |
1) caught between 2 objects with comparable positive valences (= approach-approach conflict) 2) an object has both positive AND negative valences (= approach-avoidance conflict) 3) caught between 2 objects with comparable negative valences (= avoidance-avoidance conflict) |
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Zeigarnik Effect |
tendency to recall uncompleted tasks better than completed tasks by Lewin explanation: the tension from an uncompleted task remains and motivates person to recall it more accurately suggests that a study unit should best be ended with a question |
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Group Dynamics |
study of effects of groups on individuals and vice versa by Lewin |
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Karl Duncker |
2nd generation of Gestalt psychologists induced motion = people tend to perceive movement if their body is stationary, but an object in their perceptual field is in motion (car pulls up next to you, while your car is standing --> illusion of rolling backwards) Under Wertheimer, conducted research on problem solving. Found that many subjects exhibited "functional fixedness" (= inability to find productive solutions to new problems ) |
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Hedwig von Restorff |
2nd generation of Gestalt psychologists Research assistant for Koehler in classic experiment they found: isolated items are recalled better than homogenous (similar) ones (numbers against background of nonsense syllables is easier to remember than numbers on numbers) = Koehler-von Restorff effect |
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Soloman Asch |
2nd generation of Gestalt psychologists social psychology he substituted the dichotomy between individual & group with an integrated view of social interaction group pressure & line length research |
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Gestalt therapy |
nothing to do with Gestalt approach set forth by Wertheimer, Koehler, Koffka |
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Common misunderstandings of gestalt psychology |
1) gestalt therapy (nothing to do with it) 2) it opposes analysis (untrue, if a unit is part of a whole then it should be investigated) 3) it is nativistic, more emphasis on heredity than environment (actually, they reject the nature/nurture distinction & find it too simplistic) 4) it neglects past experience (untrue, insight & productive thinking would be impossible without considering the past) |
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1) Arnheim 2) Katona |
1) used Gestalt therapy to explore psychology of art 2) book on memory & education (Organising & Memorising): understanding based on insightful grouping (=meaningful learning) will yield superior results to simple memorisation of unorganised materials (= senseless learning) |