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87 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Phospholipid Bilayer
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- hydrophobic inside (non-polar, cytoplasmic)
- hydrophilic outside (polar, exoplasmic) |
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Phospholipids
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- phosphoglycerides (glycerol based, in cytoplasmic layer, phosphatidyl choline, serine, inositol, 2 fatty acids)
- sphinogolipids (sphingosine based, long, sphinomyelin, found in animals only, 1 fatty acid) |
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Glycolipids
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- carbohydrate and a lipid
- serve as cell markers - more on exoplasmic layer |
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Lipids
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- fatty acids
- 12-20 Carbons long - length determines thickness in turn saturation |
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Saturated Fatty Acid
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- no double bonds
- myristic, stearic, palmitic |
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Unsaturated Fatty Acid
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- mono (1 double bond, oleic acid)
- poly ( more than 1 double bond, linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic) - cis (fluidity) and trans (fats) bonds |
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Sterols
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- 4 Carbon rings and -OH group
- rigidity buffers against over fluidity (hydrocarbon structure) and rigidity (cold temps) - animals; cholesterol - plants; phytosterol - fungi; ergosterols - bacteria, mitochondria, chloroplasts; hopanoids |
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Membrane Fluidity
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- rotational movements (around own axis)
- lateral diffusion (along membrane) - transverse diffusion (back and forth exoplasmic to cytoplasmic layers with enzyme help) |
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Changing Fluidity
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- cold temps cause rigidity
- membrane receptors don't function properly - decreases fatty acid length, increases double cis bonds - hibernating animals help by increasing ratio of unsaturated fatty acids to saturated fatty acids |
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Integral Proteins
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- amphiphatic
- monotopic goes through exo or cytoplasmic - transmembrane goes through both - anion, aquaporins |
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Peripheral Membrane Proteins
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- exo or cytoplasmic
- do not penetrate bilayer - form non covalent bonds w/ polar or integral protein on exoplasmic phospholipid - cytochrome C |
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Lipid Anchored Protein
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- cyto or exoplasmic
- covalently bonded to fatty acid chains and glycosyl phosphatidyl inositol |
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Membrane Sugars
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- on glycolipids and glycoproteins
- forms glycocalyx around cell |
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Glycocalyx
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- cell markers (prevents autoimmune disease, transplant rejections, signals damage cell to destruct; cancer)
- cushions cell |
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Isolating Membrane Proteins
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- Peripheral by change in pH or concentration of salt
- integral by using sodium dodecyl sulfate (anionic detergent (adds negative charge to proteins) and a surfactant to keep alveoli fluid for gas exchange) to dissolve lipids - PAGE gel separates by protein size |
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Simple Diffusion
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- direct, unaided across bilayer don concentration gradient, exergonic, Delta G < 0
- rate of diffusion not saturable - if H2O it's osmosis |
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Facilitated Diffusion
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- aka passive transport
- requires transport proteins (symporters, antiporters (anion exchanger), uniporter (glucose)) that bind, change shape and transport to other side - movement down electrical concentration gradient - Delta G < 0, exergonic - no directionality |
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Movement of Glucose
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- down gradient
- inside cell glucose is converted to blu-6-p |
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Anion Exchanger
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- antiporter facilitated diffusion
- CO2 in blood moves into RBC via plasma - inside cell, CO2 is converted to H2CO3 by carbonic anhydrase - decreases CO2, increases drive for CO2 into cell |
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Ion Channels
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- facilitated diffusion
- highly specific to ion - 4 types: ligand gated, voltage gated, mechanosensitive and non-gated |
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Porins
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- facilitated diffusion
- barrels through membrane filled with H2O - allow passage of small sugars |
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Aquaporins
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- facilitated diffusion
- move H2O - in plants to increase turgor pressure, prevent wilting - in kidney tubules for thirst, decrease bp, bv triggering vasopressin increasing aquaporin |
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Active Transport
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- movement against/ up gradient
- delta G > 0, endergonic - requires energy or coupling - direct coupling (ATP driven Na/K pumps) |
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Indirect Coupling
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- aka secondary active transport
- transports symporters and antiporters protein - ex: symport of glucose and amino acids in intestine symport Na & H+ pumps create H+ gradient, movement down its gradient powers movement of sugars |
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Reaction in Chemical Reaction
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- A + B ---> C
- keq = [C]/([A]*[B]) |
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Reaction in Transport
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- S out <---> S in
- keq = [S]in/[S]out = 1 - at equilibrium - [S]in < [S]out, Ln < 0 and G < 0, exergonic, spontaneous - [S]in > [S]out, Ln > 0 and G > 0, endergonic, requires energy |
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Anabolic Pathways
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- build up
- decrease randomness, entropy - endergonic - delta G > 0 - polymerization/elongation of nucleic acid, protein synthesis |
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Catabolic Pathway
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- break down
- increase randomness, entropy - exergonic - delta G < 0 - ATP hydrolysis, glycolysis |
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ATP
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- primary energy currency
- function to transfer phosphate group - Glu + ATP ---> Glu-6-P + ADP - 3 phosphates, ribose, adenine - 3 high energy bonds - phosphoanhydride (-7.3), phosphoester (-3.6) |
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Hydrolysis
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- exergonic
- ATP ---> ADP + Pi or ATP ---> AMP + PPi - H2O ---> -OH + H+ - increase randomness |
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Oxidation
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- reduction in biological systems
- transfers electron in pairs or with protons - exergonic - dehydrogenation reactions - ethanol ----> acetaldehyde + 2e- + 2H+ |
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Reduction
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- gain of e- in pairs
- endergonic - hydrogenation reactions - acetaldehyde + NADH+ -----> ethanol + NAD+ |
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Glycolysis
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- breakdown, oxidation of glucose to pyruvate
- exergonic - delta G = -20kcal/mol - glucose ---> 2 pyruvate + 2 ATP + 2 NADH + H+ - invested 2 ATP - derived 4 ATP + 2 NADH + 2 H+ |
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Glycolysis Steps
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glucose (w/ ATP---> G-6-P ---> fruct-6-p (w/ ATP/PFK---> fruct-1,6-bis P ---> dihydroxyacetone-p + glycerol-3-p (w/NAD + Pi---> q,3-bisphosphoglycerate (w/ADP---> 3-phosphoglycerate ---> 2-phosphoglycerate ---> phosphoenolpyruvate (w/ATP---> pyruvate
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Fermentation
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- absence of O2 when pyruvate is processed
- regenerates NAD+ not ATP - lactate, ethanol + CO2, acetone |
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Lactate
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- lactic acid
- built up during strenuous exercise - later delivered by blood to love/kidneys to be converted to glycolysis by gluconeogenesis - delta G < 0, spontaneous (-320k/m) |
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Cellular Respiration
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- aerobic respiration
- maximizes energy yield after glycolysis - yields more ATP b/c of an external e- acceptor, O2 |
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Aerobic Respiration
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- yields 38 ATP
- oxidation/removal of e- from glucose - transfers e- to coenzymes - Pyruvate oxidation, TCA cycle, e- transport system, ATP synthesis - in mitochondria, chemotrophs and phototrophs |
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Mitochondria
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- outer: porins
- intermembrane space: H+ gradient - matrix: pyruvate dehydrogenase, krebs cycle enzymes, mitochondrial DNA |
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Aerobic respiration steps
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- when O2 is present pyruvate into matrix by translocase, symported with H+
- pyruvate undergoes oxidative decarboxylation by pyruvate dehydrogenase, oxidizing pyruvate, pyruvate decarboxylation and addition of Acetyl CoA, CO2, NADH - Acetyl CoA adds to oxaloacetate for citric acid - citric acid is decarboxylated twice forming succinate - succinate converts to regenerated oxaloacetate |
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5 Oxidation Steps in Aerobic Respiration
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- pyruvate --> Acetyl CoA (CO2 + NADH)
- 2 at citrate --> succinyl CoA (CO2 + NADH) - 2 at succinate --> oxaloacetate (FADH + NADH) |
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Decarboxylation
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- NAD+ --> 1 NADH = 3 ATPs
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Dehydrogenation
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- succinate to fumarate
- FAD+ --> 1 FADH = 2 ATPs |
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Pyruvate Dehydrogenase
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- regulated allosterically
- cues that indicate abundant energy levels NADH, ATP, Acetyl CoA - cues that indicate low energy levels NAD, AMP, CoA - decrease ATP, increase TCA |
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Fat Catabolism
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1) hydrolysis of triglycerides (TG + H2O --> glycerol --> glycerol-3-p --> dihyrdoxyacetone-p)
2) glycerol is converted to a compound that can enter the citric cycle 3) beta oxidation produces Acetyl CoA, enters the citric cycle |
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CoA Depletion
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- can be limiting step
- incomplete fat catabolism - increases ketone bodies, decreases blood pH - fruity breath, hyperventilation |
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Protein Catabolism
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- stored as muscles, not as energy source
- during starvation it can be broken down for energy - proteolysis by proteases, oxidative deanimation of amino acid to keto acids |
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Oxid Deanimation
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- amino acid to keto acids
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Transamination
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- keto acids to amino acids
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Glyoxylate Cycle
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- plants only
- acetyl CoA --> sugars by gluconeogenesis - seed generation |
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Electron Transport System
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- transfer of e-'s from carriers
- exergonic - 10 H+ are moved for ever pair of e- transferred to complex 1-3 |
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Complex 1
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- NADH dehyrogenase complex
- e-'s from NADH to CoEnzyme Q - 4 H+ - used by NADH |
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Complex 2
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- Succinate CoEnzyme Q Cytochrome oxidoreductase
- e's from succinate to FAD+ to CoEnzyme Q - used by FADH |
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Complex 3
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- Coenzyme A cytochrome C oxidoreductase
- e-'s from CoEnzyme Q to Cytochrome C - 4 H+ - used by NADH, FADH |
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Complex 4
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- Cytochrome C oxidase
- e-'s from Cytochrome C to O2 - 2 H+ - used by NADH, FADH |
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ATP Synthase
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- ADP + Pi --> ATP
- 1 ATP produced per 3 H+ moved down gradient - 10 H+ rotate f0/f1 (H+ channel/ATP synthase) complex changing formation of 3 enzyme active site to catalyze 3 ATPs |
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2 NADH Need To Be Transferred into mitochondria to ETS by
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- liver/hear/kidney: e- from NADH to Malate into matrix into TCA cycle (3 ATPs)
- muscle/brain: e- to glycerol-3-p into intermembrane space to FADH to FADH2 (2 ATPs) |
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Photosynthesis
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- conversion of light energy to chemical energy
- conversion of inorganic C to organic C - use light energy to drive anabolic reactions - two parts: energy transduction reaction and carbon assimilation/fixation |
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Energy Transduction Reaction
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- pigments absorb light
- transfer e- to chlorophyll a (aka P680) - e- lost in transfer is replenished by photolysis - excited e-'s in P680 --> pheophytin --> plastoquinone --> cyctochrom B6/f --> plastocyanin --> PS I (P700 reaction center) --> ferredoxin --> NADP --> NADPH (for calvin cycle) |
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Carbon assimilation/fixation
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- CO2 to triose (3 carbon sugar)
- occurs in stroma - CO2 by simple diffusion adds to ribulose 1.5 bis P making 2 of 3-phosphoglycerate with ATP and NADPH to glyceraldehyde-3-p - trioses moves to cytosol for sucrose formation or stays in stroma making starch to be used for glycolysis |
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Chloroplasts
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- conduct photosynthesis
- outer memb: highly permeable - inner memb: selectively permeable barrier - contains thylakoid (sacs, grana) and connected - H+ pumped into lumen of thylakoid, enters stroma for ATP synthase |
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Photosynthesis Pigments Have
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- porphyin group (large multi C-N ring)
- phytol (hydrocarbons anchoring pigments - Mg2+ (makes charge across ring) - photon E excites e- in pigments |
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Pigment Absorption
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- chlorophyll a and b at blue and red but reflect green
- accessory pigments (phycobillins) absorb at blue but reflects red |
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1 triose =
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9 ATPs, 6 NADPHs and 3 turns of the calvin cycle
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Rubisco Activation
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- activase clears active site
- cleaves phosphates from rubisco active site to activate rubisco - inhibited when increase ADP, phosphate stays, rubisco inhibited, decrease calvin cycle - increase ATP, actives active to cleave phosphate to increase calvin cycle |
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Rubisco Carboxylase
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- rib 1.5 bis p + CO2 ----> 2 of 3 phosphoglycerate used in calvin cycle
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Rubisco Oxygenase
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- rib 1.5 bis p + O2 ---> phosphoglycolate used in glycerinate + 2 phosphoglycerate used in calvin cycle
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Endomembrane consists of..
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- smooth and rough ER
- golgi apparatus - endosomes - vesicles |
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Rough ER
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- studded with ribosomes
- protein synthesis starts in cytosol continuing in lumen - sort/tag polypeptides - modifies translation post electron transport chain - degradation of misfolded polypeptides |
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Smooth ER
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- drug detoxification (modifies substance by adding -OH, methyl, acetyl, phosphates)
- alters structure to change substance activity - solublize to H2) for elimination - P450, adds -OH, anesthetics, barbiturates |
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Exposure to Barbiturates
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- increase release of P450
- proliferates SER to improve drug elimination |
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Example of P450
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- aryl hydrocarbon hydroxylase
- adds -OH to polycyclic hydrocarbons - increases toxicity - tobaccos use, increases P450 enzyme |
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Carbohydrate Metabolism
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- smooth ER
- glycogen to glucose-1-p to glu-6-p to brain/muscles for glycolysis or to glucose to transport out of cell |
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Calcium Stores
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- modified smooth ER, sarcoplasmic reticulum in skeletal muscles
- stores calcium by Ca-ATPases - action potential triggers volt gated Ca channels to release Calcium into sarcoplasm for muscle contractions |
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Biosynthesis of Steroids, Lipids, Cholesterols
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- P450 adds -OH to cholesterol making testosterone/estrogens
- phospholipid exchange proteins transports phospholipids synthesis in RER/SER/golgi through cytosol |
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Golgi Complex
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- continues protein synthesis by sorting/packaging
- cis (facing nucleus, anterograde flow) and trans (away from nucleus, retrograde) - materials are transported by vesicles from ER to cis face and from trans face to targets |
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Glycosylation
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- usually in cytosol during translation to ER to golgi
- addition of common core oligosaccharide - adds OH and NH2 - proper folding, tagging, marking (ER tagged for return along with sugars) |
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Common Core Oligosaccharides
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- N-acetylglucosamine and mannose, glucose
- flipped inward - cleavage of mannose, glucose and other moieties |
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Lysosomes
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- mannose-6-p binds to receptor by trans face
- fuse with endosomes to from lysosomes when leaving golgi apparatus - lysosomes have low pH, receptors release mannose-6-p floating free - works as defense, nutrition and recycling of cell components |
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Transport Vesicles
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- transport to target along microtubules
- release constitutive or regulated (upon signal) - polarized - specific destination associated with SNAREs |
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SNAREs
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- mediate fusion of vesicles to target membrane
- V: vesicle snap receptors on vesicles - T: target snap receptors on target membrane - both are complementary and attach to release contents - dissociated by NSF and electron transport chain proteins |
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Botulinum
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- cleaves SNAREs
- stops neurotransmitter release - causing muscle paralysis |
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Pinocytosis
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- clathrin independent endocytosis
- retrieval of plasma membrane to ER - recycles membrane |
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Clathrin Dependent Endocytosis
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- uses adaptor proteins
- phagocytosis |
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Endocytosis Steps
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- ligand/substance binds to receptors on exoplasmic membrane
- coated pits signal aggregation of clathrin on cytoplasmic membrane to curve around ligand-receptors - dynamin closes vesicle into cytoplasm - coating is released - vesicle fuses with endosome and either digested/recycled/exocytosed |
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Lysozomal Enzymes
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- usually work inside but..
- sperm break down protective coat of egg - leaking cause damage to joint tissue (rheumatoid arthritis) |
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Peroxisome
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- not part of endomembrane system
- H2O2 metabolism (2 H2O2 ---> 2 H2O + O2) - detox harmful chemicals (dehydrogenation and transfer H to O2 --> H2O) - oxidation of fatty acids - metabolism of nitrogenous compounds (transamination to mitochondria) - catabolism of abiotic, xenobiotic substances (fuel in body) |