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92 Cards in this Set
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What are the 4 main learning responses during infancy and toddlerhood? |
1) Classical conditioning (environmental adaptation) 2) Operant conditioning (use of reward and punishments) 3) Habituation-dishabituation (Phase 1: habituation, decreases the amount of focus on a specific thing (habituation); Phase 2: Decrease focus as they learn something else that is new (dishabituation)). 4) Imitation |
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What are Schemes (in regards to infancy/toddlerhood)? |
Organiszed ways of making sense of experience. These change with development according to Piaget. Change from action-based level (0-2years) to mental level (2-7 years) [ie movement based to thinking based] |
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What changes with development in infancy/toddlerhood? |
Schemes. They move from action based levels (0-2 years) to mental based level (2-7 years). |
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How does change take place in infancy/toddlerhood? |
A) Adaptation: Building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. This plasticity is retained through the lifespan. This is the most important Piagetian concept. Two properties that reflect plasticity are: 1) Assimilation: The use of current schemes to interpret the external world; and 2) Accommodation: the creation of new schemes or the adjustment of old schemes B) Organization: Internal linking of schemes to one another. |
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Adaptation |
Part of how change takes place in infancy/toddlerhood. Building schemes through direct interaction with the environment. This plasticity is retained through the lifespan. This is the most important Piagetian concept. Two properties that reflect plasticity are: 1) Assimilation: The use of current schemes to interpret the external world; and 2) Accommodation: the creation of new schemes or the adjustment of old schemes |
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Assimilation |
The use of current schemes to interpret the external world. Part of adaptation in the development in infants and toddlers. |
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Accommodation |
The creation of new schemes or the adjustment of old schemes. Part of adaptation in the development in infants and toddlers. |
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Organization |
Internal linking of schemes to one another. Part of how change takes place in infancy/toddlerhood. |
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What are the 6 substages of development in infancy and toddlerhood? |
1) Reflexive Schemes 2) First learned adaptations 3) Making interesting sights last 4) Coordinating reactions 5) Discovering through active experience 6) Mental Representation |
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What substage is "Reflexive Schemes" in infancy and toddlerhood, and what happens during it? |
This is substage 1. Newborn reflexes are the building blocks of sensorimotor intelligence. Stimulus comes from the environment to start reflexes. Newborns learn from the reflexes (which is very important for cognitive development). |
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What substage is "First learned adaptations" in infancy and toddlerhood, and what happens during it? |
This is substage 2. During this stage infants 1-4 months old develop Primary Circular Reactions. These include voluntary control with satisfying results. This is similar to the habituation-dishabituation stage, in that infants keep doing an action again and again, learning from the sensations. |
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What substage is "Making interesting sights last" in infancy and toddlerhood, and what happens during it? |
This is substage 3. During this stage infants 4-8 months old develop Secondary Circular Reactions. These improve control over their own behaviors and there is an increased attention toward the external environment. |
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What substage is "Coordinating Reactions" in infancy and toddlerhood, and what happens during it? |
Substage 4. Infants 8-12 months old develop advanced anticipation, in that they recognize there are more significant relationships among things and they realize that they can cause things to move (physical causality). They also understand object permanence (understand that things exist, even when hidden. They will look for the object where they last found the object, not where it was moved - the AB search error) |
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What substage is "Discovering through active experience" in infancy and toddlerhood, and what happens during it? |
Substage 5. Typically infants 12 - 18 months old develop Tertiary Circular Reactions (A change in mobility causes reentry into circular reactions of exploration). The AB search error is also corrected. Vocab increases significantly, as they begin to enter the mental scheme. |
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What substage is "Mental representation" in infancy and toddlerhood, and what happens during it? |
Substage 6. 18 months - 2 years old. Deferred imitation: Able to remember and use things that have been seen previously for future reactions Begin to participate in make believe play. Are able to problem solve, think about things before they are done. |
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What are the 3 elements to Information Processing Theory that allows infants and toddlers to input schemes? |
1) Sensory Register: Briefly stores information so we can attend to the most important sights and sounds. ie. library storage 2) Working or Short Term Memory: We 'work' on information. This is similar to Piaget's organize. We organize sensory input, and has a certain capacity for holding information. 3) Long Term Memory: Permanent knowledge base that includes: Retrieval, categorized (if it is categorized well, then it can be retrieved well), and capacity. |
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How does language develop in infants/toddlers? |
First words are typically ~12 months old Start combining words by 1.5-2 years old |
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What is the process that infants and toddlers go through while getting ready to talk? |
1) Cooing and babbling: 2-4 months. Experimentation with sound 2) Turn-taking language: ~7 months. Not pragmatic, almost like habituation-dishabituation. 3) Preverbal gestures: ~12 months. This is before we understand nouns and names. They can engage the motor system to tell us what they want. Start putting things together and are training us as well. 4) First words: ~12 months. This includes errors when they first start learning. Underextension (ie Doll = only their favorite doll, does not expand to all dolls. ) Overextension (ie Car = All moving vehicles, ie car = train = motorcyle = bike...). Despite these errors, they can learn quickly (150-200 words by the end of infancy/toddlerhood). This aspect does not only include the cognitive aspect of learning, but also the motor development of the mouth. 5) 2-word utterances: ~18-24 months old. Begins with telegraphic speech (Enough words to understand, but not full sentences. However, they very rarely put wrong words together - good grammar, but have no concept of it.) 6) Continued Development: . When we participate in conversation in infancy and toddlerhood than the kid is more likely to begin to learn how to have a conversation during early language development and are more likely to have academic competence in school during elementary school (early childhood). |
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Describe the body growth in early childhood (2-6 years old) |
Slower pattern of growth. Average growth is 2-3 inches of height and ~5 lbs of weight. There is also a significant change in body compositon. This is the phase where body proportion start to change (Torso lengthens and widens. Spine also straightens and head is more proportional to the body). They no longer need to control their core temperature with fat - lean out. |
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Describe brain development in early childhood (2-6 years old). |
Brain increases from ~70% to 90% of its adult size/weight. Begin establishing links (neurons) in the cerebrum - becoming more dense. Lateralization (development of dominance - right, left, or ambidextrous). |
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What is the most important system for overall growth? |
The endocrine system |
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How is the endocrine system organized? |
Into glands and hormones |
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Glands |
These are ductless tissue of smooth muscle. They secrete hormones. All glands are specialized Part of the endocrine system |
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Hormones |
These are specialized compounds that regulat the activity of other tissues and organs. They only interact with the cells that they are intended to interact with due to their specialization. Part of the endocrine system |
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What do hormones regulate? |
1) Growth and maturation (morphogenesis) 2) Respond to stimuli (integration) 3) Maintain the internal environment (Maintenance/homeostasis) Everything we do involves one of these processes, which is why the endocrine system is so important. |
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What are hormones made from? |
- Proteins (why we need our essential amino acids) - Steroids (Fat-based, cholesterol) - Amines (Fatty acids our body has consumed through diet) - Fatty acids Hormones are specialized by how they are made |
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What is one of the methods that hormones exert their effect on the body? |
Negative feedback loop: ie To little of a regulated substance --> the appropreate endocrine gland produces the hormone --> increases production and release. ie Pancreas action with glucagon and insulin with its effects on blood sugar. |
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What is the "master gland"? |
Pituitary Gland. |
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How is the pituitary gland attached to the brain? |
The hypothalamus is connected to the pituitary stalk which then is attached to the pituitary gland. The pituitary gland is protected by the sella turcica of the sphenoid. |
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What are the layers of the pituitary gland? |
A) Anterior B) Posterior (connects to the pituitary stalk, and its main responsibility is to connect to the brain, why it produces less hormones) C) Intermediate Layer : Thin layer of cells between the lobes responsible for changes in temporary skin tone (ie skin tan). |
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What is the anterior pituitary responsible for? |
Regulation of growth and maturation. Produces: Growth hormone, thyroid-stimulating hormone, corticotropins, 3 gonadotropins. |
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Growth hormone |
GH. Produced by the anterior pituitary. Usually released during period of large growth spurts. Pulse-released in response to low blood sugar (during sleep). Children produce much more than adults. Adults primarily use this for the increase in the synthesis of new proteins from amino acids, and to convert body fat to glucose. |
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Thyroid-stimulating hormone |
TSH Produced by the anterior pituitary. Stimulates the thyroid to produce thyroid hormone (TH). This increases BMR, O2 uptake, and EE. GH must have TH because they are complementary hormones. The body cannot use GH without TH. |
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Corticotropin Releasing hormone |
From the hypothalamus. Stimulates the ant pit to release ACTH (adrenocorticotropic hormone). |
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Adrenocorticotropic Hormone |
ACTH Released by the ant. pit. Stimulates the adrenal glands to release corticotropins from the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. |
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What does the adrenal cortex secrete? |
steroid and anabolic hormones |
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What doe the adrenal medulla secrete? |
Secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and suppressive hormones |
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Gonadotropins |
Released by the ovaries and testes. Work with the corticotropins. |
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What hormones does the posterior pituitary secrete? |
Vasopressin: Water regulation for homeostasis. This modulates blood pressure to help conserve water by decreasing the rate of excretion. Oxytocin: Uterine motility and lactation during pregnancy |
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What happens to growth when there is excess GH released? |
This causes a disease similar to diabetes mellitus. Causes increased blood sugar levels by converting body fat into glucose in excess. Can lead to gigantism with pre-pubertal excesses Can lead to acromegaly with excess post-puberty. This is the widening of the long bones because the bones are done growing in their length. |
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What happens to growth when there is hyposecretion GH? |
Growth failur at early stages of life. |
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Psychosocial Dwarfism |
Children with no place to live or if they lived in a very stressful place then they would have decreased levels of GH and TH and were therefore not able to grow. After being removed from this kind of environment, within 6 months children returned to normal growth patterns and release of hormones. |
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Hyperthyroidism |
Can be caused by either an autoimmune disorder or by thyroiditis. Autoimmune: The body attacks itself. Mainly seen in Graves Disease. Thyroiditis: Swelling of the thyroid gland. If it happens to a person when they are young, it may wear out the thyroid, leading to undersecretion when they are older. Only up to 3% of people suffer from this |
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Hypothyroidism |
Can be caused by either thyroiditis or by a nodular growth. This could lead to obesity due to a decrease in BMR. |
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What happens to growth when there is hyposecretion Cortisol? |
Since this regulates and control the breakdown of CHO, PRO, and FAT, too little secreted leads to Addison's Disease. Addison's Disease leads to a poor management of stress, increased BP, experience darker skin tone in times of stress. |
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What happens to growth when there is hypersecretion Cortisol? |
To much leads to a decrease in growth (Cushing's Disease). This is coupled with an inflammatory response. This is temporary. |
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Explain Gross Motor Development during early childhood (2-6 yrs). |
COG shifts down-up (ie learning stairs, sitting, then walking). Gait patterns progress Mobility becomes independent |
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Explain Fine Motor Development during early childhood (2-6 yrs). |
- Learn how to dress themselves (large buttons/zippers/velcro)
- Use of utensils (starting with spoons, progressing to forks). Through the use of ulnar and pincer grasp/ - Cognitive combinations (drawings): we see what they know or how they think (physical + cognitive) |
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What Piagetian stage happens during early childhood and what does it entail? |
Piaget's Preoperational Stage (2-7yrs) Preschoolers are limited by: 1) Egocentrism: Representation of the world is only from their perspective. 3 mantain problem (asks children what they see from their perspective and what the other person can see. Don't use color and can't look outside. 2) Inability to conserve: Reflection of centration (focus is too narrow), perception (looks like therefore it must be), and state vs transformations (are unrelated). 3) Lack of hierarchical classifications: Cannot organize on the basis of similarities and differences. Class inclusion problem: are there more yellow flowers or flowers? |
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Explain Language Development during early childhood (2-6 yrs). |
- By age 6, they know ~10,000 words - How? Fast mapping: attach a name to a person/action/thing quicker - Begin to develop skills in grammar and conversation |
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Explain Body Growth during middle childhood (6-11 yrs). |
- shift where females move higher in height and weight than males - Girls have a higher body fat % in middle/late childhood - Boys are more muscular - longer, smaller, and thinner - Temporary teeth to permanent teeth |
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Myopia |
Disorder of the eye Light hits the vitreous (liquid) not the retina (before the retina). Creates an inability to see objects at a distance (Nearsightedness). Caused by an irregular shaped eyeball, too long, not perfectly round. |
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Hyperopia |
Light focus is too deep (Farsightedness). The shape of the lense is the cause. Difficulty focusing on near objects because the eyeball is too short. |
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Presbyopia |
Developed later in life. Late onset of hyperopia due to lens malfunctions. Lense becomes not as flexible, producing an overextended lense/focus. |
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Astigmatism |
Irregular shaped cornea (interior chamber). Results in light rays focusing on 2 pts on the retina vs one. Football shaped cornea instead of basketball shaped. Can be vertical or horizontal issues depending on which focal point is stronger. |
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Cataracts |
Degeneration of the natural lens. Causes cloudy vision. Opaque lens due to protein build up. There are 4 kinds: 1) Senile: Age-related 2) Congenital: Born with a chromosomal abnormality. Turner's or Cry de Chat. 3) Secondary: Result of something (such as medicine, drugs... 2nd most common) 4) Traumatic: ie blunt force trauma Easily corrected by surgery, replacement of lens with a manufactured lens. Very successful. |
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Glaucoma |
A build up of fluid pressure in the ey, which breaks down the optic nerve. Results in a loss of peripheral vision (tunnel vision). No cure - 2nd leading cause of blindness. 2 types 1) Closed Angle: Severe. Quickly lose vision within 6 month to a year. Fastest form of blindness. 2) Open Angle: Loss of vision is progressive. People don't realize they're losing their peripheral vision. "Sneaky thief of vision". |
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Describe the 3 types of hearing loss |
1) Conductive: Outer or middle ear structures in the ear are not able to conduct waves or vibrations. 2) Cochlear: Inner ear: Very sensitive, cannot convert the vibrations into a signal 3) Presbyacusis: Age related. Can occur as either above. Structures start to break down. Males are more susceptible to presbyacusis and presbyopia until up to 75 yrs old. |
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Tinnitus |
Constant ringing in the ears. Not disease, but a symptom. No cause and no cure. May also have a hearing loss disorder. |
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Hyperacusis |
Happens in people with normal hearing. This is the overstimulation of auditory signals. Just the way the brain interprets the signal. |
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Loudness sensitivity |
People with cochlear hearing loss. ie Hear things excessively, increases intensity/volume |
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Describe cognitive development during middle childhood (7-11 years old). |
Piaget's 3rd stage (Concrete operational) - Seriation: Developed in mid-childhood. The ability to order things along a quantitative spectrum (ie Russian Nesting Dolls). - Spacial Reasoning: Developed in middle childhood. ie reading maps, diagrams, maze. To understand where we are in space. Physical memory. Things can influence positively, negatively, or stall it. One of the most challenging to develop because you have to have the opportunity to develop it. |
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Describe gross motor development during middle childhood (7-11 years old). |
- Refinement of skills - Contribute to improved motor performance - Become more proficient in movements they're exposed too |
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Describe fine motor development during middle childhood (7-11 years old). |
- Most children can dress themselves - Using utensils and scissors - Drawing/writing increases. 9years begin cursive writing. Start proportionally drawing body parts and to other things. Increased spacial awareness (from flat to 3D) |
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Describe language development during middle childhood (7-11 years old). |
- A sensitive period: Can learn a second can be learned easier during middle childhood, they will be asble to score as well as native speakers. It is harder to learn a language after middle childhood. Won't score or pronounce as well. - Will know 40,000 to 50,000 words via mid childhood due to full time schooling (increased interactions), they begin reading, and lots of influences to increase. - Much more conversive. Like to engage in new vocab. |
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Describe the physical transition during adolescence |
- Last major growth spurt - Gender differences: Girls begin earlier than boys. A period of time where girls seem bigger than boys. There is approximately a 2 year gap. - Increase in precursor hormones (GH/TH increase) - Estrogen (more in females) and androgens (more in males). Genders don't use the hormones in the same way - Pubertal changes are divided into 2 broad categories: 1) Overall body growth 2)Maturation of sex characteristics |
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Describe overall body growth during puberty in adolesence. |
- First visible sign of puberty = growth spurt - Ave start/end: Females (8/16), Males (10/17.5). - Gap between height and weight persists through adulthood. Women store more fat when younger - but a little later, women's body composition improves. - Body Proportions: Growth patterns reversed - cephalo-caudal and proximal-distal. The torso has most growth in adolescence in torso, not as much as our limbs. 2 year difference in M and F, 2 years longer for limbs to go. Males grow more in upper torso, women have torso growth in lower parts (hips). |
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Describe sexual maturation during adolescence. |
- The first sign is the appearance of breastbuds, more challenging to measure in males. - Females: Menarch happens on average around 10.5-16.5 years - Nature's delays: Men and women. Females (Body does not allow them until they are physically prepared to carry a baby through the gestational period, and if they have their menarche but not producing available ovum because the body is not ready. - Sexual maturation is typically 3-4 years in length. - Onset of maturation has a hereditary, environmental, and the physiology of the reproductive system has a role in start. |
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Describe physiology of the female reproductive system. |
- Egg number is constant - Atresia: Destructive egg loss that happens through the entire lifespan - oogenesis: Beginning of an egg. Involves cell division (miosis/mitosis) - Oogonia: ovarian cells that become eggs |
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Atresia |
Destructive egg loss that happens through the entire lifespan |
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oogenesis |
Beginning of an egg. Involves cell division (miosis/mitosis) |
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Oogonia |
ovarian cells that become eggs |
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Describe oogenesis |
1) Oogonia 2) Primary oocyte (marked) - Goes through mitosis to form 3) a) First polar body (small - n) and b) Secondary oocyte (large - n). These both go through meiosis. 4) a) From 1st polar body turns into two n's, and b) Secondary oocyte forms on second polar body (n) and the ovum (both haploid). |
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Describe sexual maturation in males |
1) Enlargement of testes happens between 9.5-13.5 years old 2) Spermarche: First ejaculation. Happens between 12-16 years old. Also has a nature's delay - sperm production are initially immature and not viable for a period of time. Rate of maturation much quicker than females. Others markers for sexual maturation: Hair, voice (increase in androgen based hormones) |
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Describe sprmatogenesis |
1) Spermatogonia ("sperm seed") goes through mitosis to form 2) Two 2n (diploid) Daughter cells (One Type A [Eventually dissolves] and one Type B [ the primary spermatocyte]). The type B cell goes through meiosis twice forming 3) Two Secondary Spermatocytes (haploid) and then 4) Four Spermatids (haploid) |
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Spermatogenesis |
Become sperm/spermatozoon with 3 regions. 1) Head: All genetic material contained here and sex chromosomes. 2) Tail: Locomotion (for travels) 3) Midpiece: Metabolic information |
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Describe Piaget's Formal Operational stage in cognitive development. |
- Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning: General theory --> Deduce --> Hypothesis. Abstract thinking about actions in different circumstances. Problem solving (Possibility --> Reality). Tested by the pendulum problem - Propositional Thought: 2nd capacity. "Either-or" versus "and" statements. Concrete operational children cannot differentiate between these statements. - Abstract thought: 3rd capacity. This results in argumentativeness, self-consciousness and self-focusing (imaginary audience- on stage and everyone is paying attn to us. Increased time on selves and don't take criticisms very well; Personal Fable: Level of importance they feel they have in that environment. Overconfidence. Feels as though they can engage in arguments. Leads to increased risk taking.), and Idealism and criticism (Don't understand that the world does not exist, and need to make world based on strengths and weaknesses of themselves and others. Critical of their own environment). |
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Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning |
1st capacity of formal operational stage General theory --> Deduce --> Hypothesis. Abstract thinking about actions in different circumstances. Problem solving (Possibility --> Reality). Tested by the pendulum problem |
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Propositional Thought |
2nd capacity of formal operational stage. "Either-or" versus "and" statements. Concrete operational children cannot differentiate between these statements. |
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Abstract thought |
3rd capacity of formal operational stage. This results in - argumentativeness, - self-consciousness and self-focusing (imaginary audience- on stage and everyone is paying attn to us. Increased time on selves and don't take criticisms very well; Personal Fable: Level of importance they feel they have in that environment. Overconfidence. Feels as though they can engage in arguments. Leads to increased risk taking.), and - Idealism and criticism (Don't understand that the world does not exist, and need to make world based on strengths and weaknesses of themselves and others. Critical of their own environment). |
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Describe physical development in adulthood. |
- Bioaging: This happens from the minute we are born. Genetically predetermined pathway. Asyncronous - never the same as someone else and each body system will go through patterns independent of one another. Heavilty influenced by nurturing (ie food, ex, living circle...). Describes process between life and death. - Senescence: Harmful events that influence the appearance and function. - Senility: Senescent events added together and the total effects. Associated with death, attached to disease process. |
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What are the theories of biological aging? |
1) Level of the DNA and body cells: Programmed effect of genes (telomeres, chromosomal disorders), and cumulative effects of random events (Mutations, accumulation of damage causing inability to repair and replace, free radicals) 2) Levels of organs and tissues: Cross linkage theory (Fibers in body age and may bend, farming crosses across other fibers, not intended this way ie actin and myosin formation - this leads to quicker deterioration and quicker aging) |
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Motor performance changes through aging. |
- Decreases in heart and lung function combined with gradual muscle loss - Is it aging or decrease motivation and practice - Athletic skill peaks between ages 20-30 then decreases - If practice continues then ~2% decline/decade |
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What is Schaie's Theory of cognitive development in adulthood? |
This is the shift of goals from aquiring knowledge to using the knowledge. Shift occurs in stages: 1) Acquisitive: Everything up to now, represented by Piaget's 4 stages 2) Achieving: How does information taken in related to what we want to do. Cognitive development closely tied to what want to achieve 3) Responsibility: Enjoying aspirations, satisfied with other roles. Other roles morph together. Outside of roles in achieve in stages. 4) Reintegrative: Start to prioritize. Thing that used to be important may not be important. Become pickier in collecting information and roles played. 1: What stage 2+3: How stage 4: Why stage |
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What does the brain retain in late adulthood? |
Considerable plasticity Mental exercises increase dendritic branching (ie Mankato nuns) |
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What happens to vision in late adulthood? |
- Adaptation to light/dark begins challenging - Peripheral vision decreases - Legal blindness (20/200) |
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What happens to hearing in late adulthood? |
- Decline in speach perception has greates impact on life satisfaction |
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What happens to taste/smell in late adulthood? |
- Over 60, decrease sensitivity - Decreases number of smell receptors and therefore sensitivity |
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What happens to touch/pain in late adulthood? |
Decreases in circulation lead to a decrease in the number of receptors |
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Diseases of the Nervous System |
1) Peripheral neuropathy 2) Multiple Sclerosis 3) Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (ALS): Degenerative with significant neurological parts in brain effected. Quick and progressive decline in Fxning. 4) Parkinson's Disease: Degenerative neurological disorders. Loss of dopamine in the brain leading to a loss of electrical signals. Tremurs |
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Cognitive Changes in Older Adulthood |
- Terminal Decline: Steady marked decrease in cognitive functioning prior to death. Average length is 3-4 years (may be faster if a diseased brain). |
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What are the 2 forms of learning mental abilities and how do they change throughout life? |
1) Crystalized learning: Learning of vocabulary, general information, logical reasoning. 2) Fluid: Number series, spatial visualization, picture series. CL increases steadily and FL decreases in the late 20/30s. Due to our typical reliance on CL and not fluid |
