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277 Cards in this Set

  • Front
  • Back

Levels of structural organization

Organism level, system level; organ level, tissue level, cellular level, chemical level

Systems of human body

Skeletal, muscular, nervous

Regions of the body

Head/neck,


upper limb extremity,


Thorax, back, abdomen


Pelvis, perineum


Lower limb extremity

Anatomical position

Everything facing foward

What are the anatomical planes

Frontal plane, transverse plane, sagittal plane

Superior

Higher on the body, nearer to the head

Inferior

Lower on the body, farther from the head

Medial

Closer to midline

Lateral

above, attaching closer to the body

Proximal

above, attaching closer to the body

Distal

below, attaching further from the body

Axes of rotation (medial-lateral)

Flexion and extension


Sagittal plane



Axes of rotation (superior-inferior)

Rotation (laterally and medially)


Transverse plane

Axes of rotation (Anterior-posterior)

Abduction and addiction


Frontal plane





Gliding

Moving your wrist left and right

Inversion

Bringing foot imwards

Eversion

Brining foot outwards

Primary functions of bones and skeletal system

Support, protection, leverage &movement, storage of minerals and lipids, blood cell production

Types of bones and examples

Long(humerus)


flat(sternum)


sutural (found between flat bones of the skull)


irregular (vertebra)


Short (cube shaped)


Sesamoid (patella)

Clavicle

Joins axial Skelton to the appendicular skeleton


Articulates with sternum and actinium of scapula

Sternoclavicular joint

medial end of the clavicle articulates with the sternum, saddle joint


What ligament is associated with the sternoclavicular joint

Sternoclavicular ligament


Interclavicular ligament


Anterior sternoclavicular ligament





What’s on the posterior of a scapula

Spine (most posterior)


Acromion (most lateral)


Infraspinous fossa


Supraspinous fossa

What’s the lateral side of scapula

Coracoid process (most anterior)


Glenoid fossa

Anterior of scapula

Subscapular fossa,


Suprascapular notch

Scapular motions

Elevation, depression, protraction, retraction, rotation

What is the acromioclavicular joint and what type of joint is it

Connects the acromial end of the clavicle to acromion of the scapula


Plain joint

What ligaments are associated with AC joint and their distances

Acromioclavicular ligament


Coracoacromial ligament


Coracoclavicular ligament


Trapezoid ligament (most lateral)


Conoid ligament (most medial)

What is a grade 1 AC separation

Partial tear on one ligament

What is a Grade 2 AC separation

Complete tear on one ligament

What is a grade 3 AC separation

Complete tear on all 3 ligaments

What is the glenohumeral joint and the type of joint

Head of the humerus and the Glenoid fossa of scapula


ball and socket joint

What is the ball and socket joint and it’s axes of rotations

Joint which rounded surface moves within a depression of another bone


Designed for mobility not stability


All 3 planes and their corresponding actions

What ligaments are associated with the glenohumeral joint

Glenohumeral ligament


Coracohumeral ligament


Coracoacromial ligament

What is the humeroradial joint and the type of joint

Capitulum of humerus (distal)


head of radius (proximal)


Hinge joint

Ligaments associated with humeroradial joint

Radial collateral ligament

What is the Humeroulnar joint and the type of joint

Hinge joint


Trochlea of humerus (distal)


trochlear notch of ulna (proximal)

Ligaments associated with Humeroulnar joint

Ulnar collateral ligament

What bones make up the elbow joint and the type of joint

Humerus, ulna and radius


Hinge joint

Which sorts of the radioulnar joint is proximal

proximal head of radius with distal end of ulna


proximal head of ulna with distal end of radius pivot joint


Radius rotates about the ulna at distal aspect

What type of ligaments are associated with radioulnar joint

Annular ligament

What is the radiocarpal joint and the type of joint

Condyloid joint


Radius articulated with scaphoid and lunate

What are the 4 proximal Carpal bones, starting from the most lateral (thumb)

Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, pisiform

What are the last 4 distal carpal bones starting from the thumb

Trapezium, Trapezoid, capitate, Hamate

How are metacarpals numbered and structured

From 1-5 starting from thumb


Organized by base, shaft, Head

How are most phalanges organized

Distal, Middle, Proximal

Which phalanges digit doesn’t have the usual structures

Thumb (just proximal and distal)

What is the metacarpophalangeal joint and it’s type of joint

Condyloid Joint


Convex metacarpal


concave phalanx

What are the movements of thumb

Abduction, adduction, extension, flexion, opposition, reposition

what are the axes of rotations for a Saddle joint



Movements are (flexion and extension, abduction and adduction)

What are the movements of hinge joint

Flexion and extension


Resembling the movements of the hinge on the door

What makes up the Os Coxae/pelvic bones

Ilium, ischium, Pubis

What is the acetabulum

Socket of the hip joint, formed from all 3 os coxae bones

What is the pelvic basin formed by

Anterior union : Pubic Symphysis


Posterior union: Sacrum

What is the sacrum

5 dues vertebrae, begins fusion 15-17 yrs old, finish fusion mid 20s

How does the male pelvis differ from female

Larger, Heart shaped pelvic inlet, Acetabulum more lateral, Obturator formed round, Pubic symphysis longer, Pelvic outlet narrower

What makes up the Pubic symphysis joint

Symphysis joint,


Fibrocartilagenous pad


superior and inferior Pubic ligaments,


rectus abdominals and oblique reinforce

Sacroiliac joint

Syndesmosis


interlocking of bones


strong ligaments


slight gliding and rotary movements

What is the Hip joint/ Acetabulofemoral joint

Head of femur and Acetabulum


Ball and socket joint

What makes up the hip joint

Articulate capsule


Iliofemoral ligament


Pubofemoral ligament


Ishiofemoral ligament


Acetabular Labrum

What is the tibiofemoral joint

Knee joint


Distal femur(Condyles)


Proximal tibia (plateau)


condyloid joint

What does the Meniscus do

Deepen tibial plateau for femoral condyles

What is the patellofemoral joint

Intercondylar groove (distal femur)


Sesamoid bone (patella)


Gliding joint (flexion and extension of knee)

Where is the Tibiofibular joint located

Interosseous membrane (little movement)


Proximal/Distal tibia


Proximal/distal fibula





What ligaments associated with Tibiofibular ligaments

Superior and inferior tibiofibular ligaments

What are the arches of the foot

Medial longitudinal


Lateral longitudinal


Transverse

What is the keystone bone for medial longitudinal arch

Navicular

What is the keystone bone for lateral longitudinal arch

Cuboid

What is the keystone bone for the transverse

Intermediate cuneiform

What are the arches of the foot for

Shock absorbers and springs

What is the ankle joint made of

Talocrural joint and Subtalar joint

What are the axes of rotations of the modified hinge joint

Flexion and extension


Sag/(ML)


Rotations


Trans/ (Sup/Inf)

What is the Talocrural joint

Talus-medial malleolus-lateral malleous


Hinge joint


Plantar flexion/Doris flexion

What makes up the knee joint

ACL (Anterior Cruciate Ligament)


PCL (posterior cruciate ligament)


MCL (medial collateral ligament)


LCL (Lateral collateral ligament)


Medial meniscus


Lateral meniscus

What does the Acetabular Labrum do

Deepen the acetabulum and hold head of femur tight to socket

What does the articulate disc help with

Shock absorber

What does the glenoid labrum do

Deepen glenoid fossa

What does your Anterior cruciate ligament prevent

Anterior tibial translation and hyperextension

What does your Posterior cruciate ligament prevent

Posterior tibial translation (flexed knee)

What does your Medial collateral ligament do

Prevents valgus motion

What does the Lateral collateral ligament prevent

Prevents Varus motion

What makes up the subtalar joint and it’s movements

Talus+calcaneus


Condyloid joint


Inversion/ eversion

How body systems work together

feeing, nutrients


Homeostasis


adaptation to environment



What is homeostasis

keeping constant despite a changing environment

What does the hypothalamus do for homeostasis

body's control center


Receives input


controls hormones



What do we keep constant in the body

Nutrients / wastes, O2/ CO2levels, pH, Water / electrolytes, Temperature, Blood volume ,Blood pressure

What are the subdivisions of the cell

plasma membrane, cytoplasm, Nucleus

What is in the cytoplasm

cytosol, organelles

What is the nucleus

chromosomes, genes

Is heart rate controlled by homeostasis

No

Is there a nucleus in the Red blood cell, explain why or why not

no, without the nucleus the red blood cell becomes more flexible and have more space for hemoglobin

How many nucleus in a regular cell

1

How many nucleus are in a muscles cell, and why or why not

multiple, needs multiple to create protein for cell and construction

what is ribosomes

make proteins, either free or attached


The free ones make proteins for the cell

Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth)

calcium storage (Muscle)


Steroid production (Ovaries)

Endoplasmic reticulum (Rough)



Ribosomes attached


protein production for export



Golgi complex

Re-packages RER proteins into a vesicle that can leave the cell

Peroxisomes

Oxidative enzymes, detoxify various waste products


eg. Liver hepatocytes

Lysosomes

sac of digestives enzymes


used for repair and removal of foreign matter


eat, break down and repair bacteria di


eg (white blood cell)



What is a cytoskeleton

acts as bone and muscle of cell

Three distinct elements of cytoskeleton

Microtubles


Microfilaments


Intermediate filaments

difference between cilia and flagella

Cilia is controlled movement while flagella just goes


Cilia found on lining of trachea while flagella just on sperm

which one is longer, cilia or flagella

flagella

Mitochondria

site of ATP production


Enzymes for TCA cycle and ETC

What is cellular diversity

cells come in different shapes and sizes


different lifespans


organized into complex tissue and organs

how many different types of cells do we have

200

What does specialized functions of cell relates to

Shape of cell


Arrangement of organelles

What happens to cells as we age

Lose function


don't respond to stress


decrease of body cells


lose integrity of the extracellular components


free radicals

What is the free radical theory

Damage from byproducts of cellular metabolism


Radicals build up and damage essential molecules of cells

Mitochondrial theory

decrease in production of energy weaken cells

Genetic theory

proposes that aging is programmed by genes

Telomeres

"end caps" on chromosomes

Telomerase

prevents telomeres from degrading

What is the plasma membrane structure made of

Physical barrier


Gateway for exchange


Communication


Cell structure



Cell membrane: Composition

Phospholipids


-Choline head (polar)


-Fatty acid tails (Non polar, creates barrier for flow)



Glycocalyx function

on surface of cell


cell identify


cell orientation


barrier for growth

Two types of Membrane Proteins

Integral (transmembrane) proteins


Peripheral Proteins


Function of membrane proteins

Ion Channels

Carrier


Receptor sites


Enzymes


Pores


Structural


Cell adhesion


Cell junction

What is the plasma membranes permeable to

small, uncharged, nonpolar molecules

What moves polar molecules across Plasma membrane

Transmembrane proteins move polar particles (Channels, carriers)

What do Macromolecules use to get across plasma membrane

Vesicles

What is passive process and some examples

(no energy needed)


Simple diffusion


Facilitated diffusion


Osmosis



What is active transport and some examples

Uses ATP


Active Transport


Vesicular Transport

Membrane Gradients

Power movement without ATP



Concentration Gradient

difference in substance concentration across a membrane

Electrical gradient

difference in charge

Electrochemical gradient

combination of both

Simple Diffusion

Net diffusion from high to low




Small Molecules (Oxygen, carbon dioxide)




Steriods



Diffusion

Two-way movement




Consider net movement

What does the rate of diffusion depend on

Temperature

Concentration gradient


Diffusion distance


Mass of diffusion substances

Diffusion across a membrane

Permeability

Surface area


Gradient


Temp

Osmosis

Net diffusion of water down its own concentration gradient




"Pulled" by non-diffusible particles

What determines Osmosis

Tonicity (# of non-diffusible particles)

Isotonic

solutions are the same? no net osmosis

Hypotonic

Fewer non-diffusible particles

Hypertonic

More non-diffusible particles



What is the direction water will move in

Hypotonic to Hypertonic

Facilitated Membrane Transport

Role of plasma proteins




Pores, channels, carriers



Channel Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

Uses protein as channel only




substance moves in along concentration gradient




Eg. Na+ or K+ channel

Carrier Mediated Facilitated Diffusion

Powered by concentration gradient




Requires action by the carrier protein

Facilitated Diffusion

Glucose Carrier

Active transport

Against gradient-requires energy




Must use carrier

Primary Active Transport

Uses ATP to run pump




Eg. Na+, K+, ATPase pump



Comparing Carrier-mediated Transport

facilitated diffusion




active transport



Co-Transport Mechanism

Secondary active transport




Powered by gradient of one solute




Moves 2nd solute against gradient




Eg. Symporter

Counter Transport

Similar to co-transport but each molecule moves in opposite directions




Eg. anti-porter

Vesicle Transport

Endocytosis and Exocytosis

Receptor-mediated Endocytosis

Transport of lipids into the cell




Also moves Iron and antibodies



Phagocytosis

The immune system response in White blood cells

Pinocytosis

Most cells can move water into the cell in bulk flow

Epithelial Transport

Combines both diffusion and active transport for movement




Eg. Gut Kidney

Secondary Messenger Response

Control of cell by chemical messengers

Specific


Shape change of binding protein activates 2nd response

cAMP response

Activates protein kinase

cAMP

rapid amplification

Calcium as a messenger

Activated IP3 causes release of Ca 2+ from ER




DAG and IP3 activated enzymes

Calmodulin

Protein 2nd messenger




Similar to cAMP response




Activates protein kinase

circumduction
combination of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction
abduction
movement away from the midline, frontal plane
adduction
movement toward the midline, frontal plane
internal rotation
turning the joint inward, transverse plane
external rotation
turning the joint outward, transverse plane
medial rotation

turning head toward midline

lateral rotation

turning head away from midline

flexion

angle is decreasing, sagittal plane

extension

angle is increasing, sagittal plane

dorsal

back of hands, top of feet

palmar

palm

plantar

bottom of feet

cranial

cranium, skull closer to head

caudal

tailbone towards the tail

ventral

front, in animals

dorsal

back, in animals

anterior

front of the body

posterior

back of the body

superficial

most outer layer, skin is superficial to bone

deep

deepest layer, bone is deep to the muscles

median plane

divides the body into equal left and right halves

coronal plane

divides body into front and back

horizontal plane

dividing body into top and bottom portions

elevation

raising a body part

depression

bring down, resting/anatomical

protraction

hands coming together

retraction

hands going out

pronation

hands facing down

supination

hands facing roof

What does the radius rotate about at the distal aspect?

ulna

normal curvature

cervical 2*


thoracic 1*


lumbar 2*


sacral 1*

How many vertebrae in the cervical spine

5

How many vertebrae in the thoracic spine

12

How many vertebrae in lumbar spine

5

How many segments in the sacrum

5

How many segments in the coccyx

4

secondary

2 degrees

primary

1 degree

Scoliosis

abnormal lateral curvature and rotation of the vertebrae side-to-side

kyphosis

increased thoracic curvature


hunchback

lordosis

increased curving of the spine inward or forward in the sagittal plane, stomach goes outwards

Cervical spine

Transverse foramen (passage of vertebral arteries)


Bifid spinous process

Atlas (C1)

No body (facet for dens)

No disc


Articulates w/ Occipital condyles

Axis (C2)

Body & Odontoid process

No disc

Craniovertebral joints (Atlanto-occipital joint)

Atlas and occipital bone of skull


Allow “yes” movement


Supported by Alar ligament

Craniovertebral joints (Atlantoaxial joint)
Atlas and axis

Allow “no” movement


Supported by transverse ligament

Thoracic Spine

Costal (rib) facets on body


(Facets T1, T10, T11, T12) (Demifacets T2-T9)




Facet of transverse process




Long, slender spinous process

`Costovertebral joints

Costovertebral joints


Head of rib articulates with costal (demi)facet(Synovial joint) (Radiate ligament)


Tubercle of rib articulates with transverse facet


(Costotransverse ligament)

Lumbar spine

Lumbar spine

Short, blunt spinous process


Thin transverse processes


Large vertebral body

Sacrum and coccyx

Sacrum is 5 fused vertebrae

(Ala (wings) articulate with ilium)




Coccyx is 4 fused vertebrae


(Vestigial tail)


(Provides anchor for spinal cord)

Intervertebral (IV) joints

Symphysis joint designed for weight bearing



IV discs provide strong attachment between vertebrae


(Act as shock absorbers)


(Annulus fibrosus)


(Nucleus pulposus)

IV disc path

Annular tears




Disc herniation

Zygapophyseal (facet) joints

Joints between superior and inferior articular processes



Synovial plane joints




Articular processes of regional vertebrae orientated differently to allow for specific movements

Movements of vertebral column

(Extension and flexion)


(lateral bending)


(rotation of head and neck, rotation of upper trunk, neck, head)

Genes

Units of hereditary


segments of DNA



Locus

location or point of a gene

Somatic cell

46 chromosomes (diploid)


2 sets of 23


one set from each parent

microtubules
build and rebuild quickly, transport secretory vesicles, form mitotic spindle during cell division
microfilaments
smaller than tubules and made by ribosomes, contractile system, mechanical stiffeners
intermediate filaments
help resist mechanical stress, keratin
membrane permeability
selectively permeable, permeable to: small, uncharged, non-polar molecules



transmembrane proteins move polar particles with channels and carriers




macromolecules use vesicles

Which cells divide repeatedly

short interphase, skin, blood cells, cheek cells, stem cells

Which cells stay alive but don't divide

muscle and nerve

Cells divide infrequently

Bone

What do chromosomes prepare for cell divison

DNA is replicated


chromosomes are condensed




Each duplicated chromosome has 2 sister chromatids

Interphase

Cell grows, performs its normal functions, and prepares for division; consists of G1, S, and G2 phases

Mitosis

chromatids splits


2 equal cells


stage of the cell cycle when a cell is actively dividing

G1 phase

Cell grows, multiplies organelles, is active

S phase

Cell synthesizes DNA

G2 phase

cell grows, centrioles replicate

prophase

first and longest phase of mitosis, chromatin condenses into chromosomes, nuclear wall degenerates, centrosomes start to move apart
prometaphase
nuclear envelope disappears, spindles from chromatids to centrosomes, kinetochore proteins appear
kinetochore microtubules
move chromatids toward opposite ends of the cell
metaphase
centromeres line up at the middle plate, mitotic spindles start to form
anaphase
centromeres split, sister chromatids move toward opposite poles of the cell
telophase
mitotic spindles dissolve, chromosomes become chromatin, new nuclear membrane forms
cytokinesis
divisions of cytoplasm, cleavage furrow pinches cell in two, new cells

nonkinetechore microtubules

overlap and push against each other, elongating the cell

cancer cells

no density-dependent inhibition, do not respond to body's control mechanisms




no anchorage dependence, form tumors

G1 checkpoint

Nutrients sufficient




Cell size big enough




DNA undamaged



Two types involved in cell cycle control

Cyclins and cyclins-dependent kinases





What do cyclins and cdks (cyclins-dependent kinases) form

MPF (maturing promoting factor) triggers mitosis

Density dependent Inhibiton

crowded cells stop dividing

Anchorage dependence

Cells must be attached to substratum to divide

Meiosis

Sexual reproduction


Produces a haploid set of chromosomes


chromosomes replicate once


2 cell divisions

Meiosis I

diploid to haploid, separates homologous chromosomes

Meiosis II

separates sister chromatids

Crossing over

prophase 1, increases genetic variability, produces chromosomes that carry genes from two different parents

Independent assortment

each pair of chromosomes sorts maternal and paternal homologs into daughter cells independently of the other pairs

Genetic variability

independent assortment, crossing over, random fertilization, produce a zygote with any of about 64 trillion diploid combinations
meiosis malfunction
abnormal chromosome count:

-failure of homologous pairs to separate during meiosis 1


-failure of sister chromatids to separate during meiosis

genetic malformations
-deletion -duplication -inversion -reciprocal translocation
multiple alleles
A gene that has more than two alleles

Punnett square

determines probability of inheriting trait

Phenotype

shown trait

Genotype

alleles

Which traits are determined by allele pairs

ear lobe shape


taste sensation


rolling tongue


freckles



Homozygous

same genes


either dominant or excessive



Heterozygous

Differing genes


Dominant trait is displayed

Co dominance

situation in which both alleles of a gene contribute to the phenotype in separate, distinguishable ways



(Blood types)

Incomplete dominance

Cases in which one allele is not completely dominant over another, blend of the alleles results

Test cross

determine genotype if you have a dominant phenotype, but unknown genotype

blood types
A, B, AB, O
blood type A

A antigens, B antibodies



blood type B

B antigen, A antibody

blood type AB
A and B antigens and no antibodies (universal recipient)

blood type O

universal donor, no antigens
dihybrid cross
A cross between individuals that have different alleles for the same gene, produces 4 phenotypes, each allele pair segregates independently during gamete formation
pleiotropy
The ability of a single gene to have multiple effects
polygenic traits
traits controlled by two or more genes
Huntington's disease
Genetic disorder that causes progressive deterioration of brain cells. caused by a dominant allele. symptoms do not appear until about the age of 35-40
sex-linked traits
most are recessive and affect males more, dominant on x affect females more

color-blindness


hemophilia


baldness

Recessive disorders

show up only in induvial homozygous for the allele

Carriers

Are heterozygous individuals who carry the recessive allele but are phenotypically normal

Pedigree Analysis

family tree that describes the interrelationships of parents and children across generations



Inheritance patterns of traits can be traced

Sex linked genes

genes on the sex chromosome

Dominant allele

determines the organisms appearance

Recessive allele

has no noticeable effect on organism unless genotype is homozygous recessive

P generation

The true-breeding parents

F1 generation

hybrid offspring of the P generation

F2 generation

When F1 induvial self-pollinate