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22 Cards in this Set
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Charles the man |
. MacDonald argues that there is abundant evidence that Charles's deep religious feeling remained fundamental to his whole existence - Before any major political/military decision he spent long hours in prayer . One of the most striking aspects of his religious outlook was his unshakeable belief in God's direction of human affairs . His position as Holy Roman Emperor was taken very seriously - he saw it as a devotional duty to uphold Christianity and defend the Catholic faith against challenges and threats, whether they be heresy (mainly Protestantism) or from Muslims (mainly the Turks and North African Moors) . However, this did not prevent him from guarding his control over the Spanish Church when challenged by the papacy (e.g the miantenance of control over the inquisition in Spain), or in trying to ensure crown control over the right to appoint bishops to Spanish sees (right of 'patronato') . A final testimony to Charles's lifelong religious devotion was his decision to abdicate all titles in the mid-1550s - He wished to retire from the cares of the world and to prepare himself for death and afterlife in solitude and contemplation . He retired to a monastery at Yuste in 1557 and spent long hours reading religious works and discussing spiritual matters with his confessor |
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Control over the Church was achieved by... |
. Right to raise taxation from the Spanish Church - e.g. 'cruzada' tax; 'tercias reale' were confirmed under Charles . In 1534, the Crown extended its right to tax clerical income in Aragon (a right which already existed in Castile) . The papacy confirmed the right of the crown to collect income from vacant bishoprics . Right of Patronato (appointment of Spanish bishops) granted to the crown in 1523 by Pope Adrian VI . Charles also had the right of appointment to officials in the Inquisition . Charles was recognised and confirmed as head of the Military Orders in Castile . Use of the Inquisition - responsible to the Spanish Crown, not to the papacy |
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Inquisition 1 |
. After the deaths of Ferdinand and Isabella there were increasing calls from moderates for the Inquisition to be abolished or at least to reform its procedures to ensure fair treatment for those suspected of heresy . Charles, like Ferdinand, refused to listen to any serious calls for reform or aboliton of the Inquisition . The scale of the persecution did decrease - The perceived Jewish problem had been dealt with by Ferdinand and Isabella and the Moriscos were not yet seen as a serious threat . Most of the victims under Charles were Old Christians, not new . In Toledo, the percentage of those accused that were Converso fell - Before 1530 this proportion was 77%; in the last 20 years of the reign it was only 2% . Initially the Inquisition had been set up to deal with conversos and moriscos, in Charles' reign it extended to new Protestant threat, Erasmians, Illuminists and minor heresy from Old Christians |
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Inquisition 2 |
. Kamen claims that in the 16th century, only 3 people per year were burned - This was a big difference compared to the early years of Ferdinand and Isabella . In Valencia, 80% of the executions under the Inquisition prior to 1592 happened before 1530 . Under Charles I, the Inquisition became more firmly established but less severe . But the Inquisition did little to advance the reforms of the Spanish Church as it was a punishing tool, not an educative one . By punishing Old Christians for petty or imaginary errors, the Inquisition helped to stifle academic debate among leading churchment and intellectuals, which alone could produce a seriosu reform programme . The Inquisition has been accused of not being willing to debate issues of heresy and being too quick to condemn . The effects of the Inquisition could be to create social divisions and suspicions in communities . Denunciation of others was expected by Inquisitors - But this often just encouraged people to get even with rivals or members of the community that were disliked |
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Inquisition 3 |
. The shame of a crime were attached to the person and their family sometimes for generations . The auto da fe (act of faith; public burning at the stake) was intended to be a public act - Firstly, to persuade the people of the evils of religious deviance; secondly, to provide an opportunity for the public to join in a collective expression of religious confirmation . Hostility and criticism towards the Inquisition may have helped limit the scope of the Inquisition in the reign of Charles I . On the other hand, the Holy Office was always supported by the Crown and other orthodox portions of Spnaish society as necessary defence agaisnt heresy . The Inquistion was responsible for some terrible persecution early on - but overall the impact was limited and the Inquisition was approved of by Spanish government and society . Kamen concludes that it is still hotly debated whether damage was done to the Spanish culture and nation as a reult of restrictions, but they helped to maintain Catholicism in Spain |
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Protestantism 1 |
. Charles had little success defending against Protestants in the HRE, but great success in Spain - Kilsby notes that 'Any signs of Protestantism were quickly eliminated' . Lutheranism emerged in Germany and was only ever a limited threat in Spain - Martin Luther, a German monk, became notorious for his 95 Theses of 1517, criticising the Catholic Church for its abuses . Some of the princes in the HRE supported Luther's views and thus came into conflict with Charles V . By early 1521, Lutheran books were using the Flanders trade route to enter Spain - The first ban was issued by Adrian of Utrecht as Inquisitor General in 1521; books continued to arrive but the Inquisition was vigilant . There were two Protestant 'scares' in Spain - The 1520s (largely in the form of the concerns expressed over the Erasmians and Illuminists) and the late 1550s |
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Protestantism 2 |
. In the first half of the 16th century, around 105 Protestants were brought in front of the Inquisition in Spain - 66 were not Spanish born, only 39 were native heretics . Spain was less open to Protestantism than other European states as the Crown had strong authority over the Church and very pious Catholic monarchs - Isabella, Ferdinand and Charles . Generally Protestantism did not flourish without the support of a moanrch, such as in Germany and England . Pendrill says that very few cases before the Inquisition involved Protestant heresy and attributes Spain's lack of Protestantism to other factors, such as the increasing level of royal control over the Spanish Church . Also Spain was not an urban society where Protestantism flourished and Charles I was an unwavering Catholic, nor were there many printing presses in Spain, relative to its population, thus inhibited the spread of new ideas . Spain was a long way from the 'storm centres' of the Reformation in northern Europe and sheltered 'physically and intellectually' by the Pyrenees |
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Protestantism 3 |
. In Spain, Seville was the most vulnerable to foreign ideas as a centre of overseas trade - In the latter years of the reign there was a small sect of Protestants in Seville, no more than 130 . The group was exposed in 1557 when Juan Ponce de Leon, eldest son of the count of Balien, was arrested with others for introducing books from Geneva . The Inquisition colllected information and launched a wave of arrests in 1558 - The whole Cazalla family was arrested in April . Kamen says the real instigator at the top was not Philip, who is normally given credit/blame, but Charles . In May 1558, Charles wrote a famous letter to regent Joanna that the death penalty was needed for all . Thus, Kamen notes that from this point on, heresy was not to be treated simply as an offence against God but as something far more serious; an offence against the securtiy of the state - hence, ti was a political crime and no just a religious one |
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Protestantism 4 |
. From 1559-62, a series of spectacular autos de fe virtually extinguished Protestantism in Spain . Charles personally ordered the execution of Protestants following autos de fe in Valladolid and Seville from 1559-62 . These actions were carried out and effectively eliminated the Protestant groups completely . Protestantism never again succeeded in taking root in Spain - In the late 16th century, a couple hundred were suspected but fewer than a dozen were burnt in those years . From 1540 to 1614, Protestants accounted for around 7% of arrests by the Inquisiton . Bigamy, sex outside marriage and blasphemy were more likely to merit arrest and investigation by the Inquisition in this later period |
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Restrictions and censorship of religious ideas 1 |
. As a result of the 1557-58 crisis, the decision was amde to cut Spain off from foreign ideas . In 1551, the Inquisition produced an Index of porhibited books . There was a death penalty for introducig books into Spain without a licence . Books and libraries were regularly searched and there were public burnigns of heretical books . In 1559, when Philip returned, he expelled all foreign students - Spanish students were only permitted to study in Spain, or at a few selected institutions abroad . Spain was being insulated from the influence of 'foreign' ideas . It would seem that there was less effective restriction of published works in Aragon than in Castile - e.g. In Barcelona there were books on the Indez being sold for many years after they were banned . The efforts to impose censorship on religious texts were mixed, but it was clear that the combined efforts of the Church, Inquisition and the suspicion of 'foreign' ideas were to collectively enhance the concept of 'purity of faith' and to insulate Spain from the threat of religious contamination |
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Restricitons and censorship of religious ideas 2 |
. It is clear that Spain remained a devoutly Catholic state . Some historians take the view that the work against Protestantism left Spain isolated from the ideas of the rest of Europe - Kilsby disagress and says that there was no 'major adverse effect' on the development of Spain's culture - Evidenced by the flow of creative literature and works of art over the next 100 years . By the end of the rein, a rich tradition of Spanish painting had begun to emerge, Maltby says it still remained overwhelmingly religious in theme and conservative but that is as it reflected the tastes of its Spanish patrons, little or nothing to do with the Inquisition . Maltby also says that the century after Charles's death is still regarded as the golden age of Spanish literature and that other countries in Europe, both Catholic and Protestant, tried to control religious ideas with equal ruthlessness and effect |
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Jews |
. Jews had been expelled in 1492 but many conversos remained - a significant proportion of those expelled returned as conversos . 1516-29 Inquisition figures show that 77% of investigations were initially into converso behaviour, but this fell to 2% by the end of the reign . In the early part of the reign, distrusty over conversos remained as there was popular opinion that they were part of the Comuneros revolt . Some of the conversos were also 'Alumbrados' (Illuminists); they were Catholic but tended towards mysticism, an extreme form of Christianity . The concept of 'limpieza de sangre' (purity of blood) became stronger during the reign of Charles . In 1547, the Statute of Limpieza was introduced in Toledo, which eventually became applied across all dioceses in Spain by 1556, that declared that purity of ancestry had to be confirmed before a person was appointed to a position in the Church . This was targeted once more at 'New Christians' (especially conversos) - this confirmed the notion in society that there was something doubtful about such New Christians |
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Muslims 1 |
. Following the forcible conversio of Muslims in Castile, from 1502 there was little attempt to try to educate or assimilate these Moriscos into Christian ways . In 1526, on a visit to Granada, Charles was informed that "the Moriscos are truly Moors; it is 27 years since their conversion and there are not 27 of them who are Christians" - Thus, there had been no success in the Christianisation of Muslims in Spain . In 1525, following the Revolt of the Germania, Charles declared that it was illegal to be Muslim in Aragon - thus extending the expulsion across the whole of Spain . This legal declaration was compromised by another agreement in 1526, which declared that the Inquisition would not prosecute Moriscos for 40 years and could retain some of their customs in return for the payment of 40,000 ducats from the Muslim community . The official reason was that the Moriscos should become assimilated into society and be genuinely converted before being subject to the Inquisition; the reality was the practical concern for the place of Muslims as an important part of the economy of Valencia and Aragon |
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Muslims 2 |
. Therefore, although this same level of tolerance was not xtended to the rest of Spain, the Inquisition executed few Moriscos, who were not to come under serious pressure until the reign of Phillip II . Instead there was recognition that the Muslim community had a part to play in society (including the raising of taxation - such as the hefty tax on the silk industry in Granada . Such attitudes towards Muslims echoes those held under Ferdinand in Aragon . Pressure by the Inquisition on the Moriscos in Aragon was prevented by both the nobility and the Cortes who wer concerned about the place of their vasdsals who worked their estates - This was shown on numerous occasions in the Aragonese Cortes in the 1530/40s where complaints were made against the Inquisition's attempts to confiscate land from the Moriscos |
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'Excessive' Catholic piety |
. Challenges to traditional Catholicism were seen by the Church in Spain as threatening to unity, order and true religion . These could be from conversos, moriscos, and heretics, but also from extreme and excessive Catholic piety which entered the realms of religious mysticism . During the Protestant 'scare' in the 1520s, two excessivelyt pious groups came to the attention of the authorities and were even associated with Protestantism . Illuminists - They believed that they could directly contact God and, like many Protestants, believed that good works were useless as a means to acheive salvation in heaven . More important were the Erasmians (or Erasmists), followers of the Burgundian philosopher Erasmus - At first his ideas were well received in Spain and he gained many influential followers - but by the end of the 1520s, it was associated with Protestantism . Within 10 years Erasmianism had been almost totally wiped out in Spain |
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Erasmians 1 |
. Erasmians were followers of Desiderius Erasmus - one of the most famous humanists and scholars of the period and a significant figure in the early renaissance . Erasmus developed what became known as Christian humanism - His goal was to purify and reinvigorate the Catholic Church . The high tide of Erasmianism in Spain was 1522-29 with supporters such as Mendoza, aristocrats such as the marquis of Villena and intelllectuals like the Benedictine Alonso de Virues . Charles himself wrote to Erasmus in December 1527 that "we shall always hold your honour and repute in the greatest esteem" seeing Erasmus as an upholder of true religion . But by 1527, the works of Erasmus were seen as potentially heretical by the Church . The religious orders prevailed on Manrique to hold a debate in Valladolid in March 1527 to decide whether Erasmus was heretical or not - a lack of a decision was seen as a victory for the Erasmians |
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Erasmians 2 |
. However, an anti-Erasmus faction grew in Spain and a Charles left Spain in 1529, more conservative theologians began to dominate - this resulted in several Erasmians being arrested . Alonso de Virues, chaplain to Charles I, was arrested in 1533 and imprisoned by the Inquisition of Seville for 4 years . Juan Luis Vives was the greatest Spanish humanist of the age - His father was arrested in 1520 and burnt alive in 1524 for practising Erasmianism in secret . Juan de Vergara was arrested in 1533 - He had been Secretary to Cisneros, professor at Alcala and the most eminent huamnist in Spain - He was accused of Illuminism, Lutheranism and Erasmianism . Persecutions of Erasmians continued into the 1530s and many left Spain of their own accord - Kamen notes that the impact of humanism has been overplayed, but does support the significance of the movement with reference to the huge sales of Erasmus's writings with publishers unable to meet demand . Thus, throughout the 1530s the tide moved against the humanists . The death of Inquisitor Manrique in 1538 removed one of the last protectors of Erasmianism in Spain - within 10 years Erasmianism had ceased to exist in Spain |
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Illumists (Alumbrados) |
. They believe themselves capbale fo uniting their soul with God and being incapable of committing sin . The movement was short-lived - It began in 1510, and largely died out by 1529 . Isabel and another member of the group, Pedro Ruiz de Alcaraz were arrested - they were sentenced at an auto da de in 1529 to perpetual imprisonment but were released after a few years, all individuals involved were conversos . The Inquisitor General Manrique drew up 48 propositions in 1525 demonstrating the heretical beliefs of the Illuminists . Juan de Avila, also a converso who had studied at the University of Alcala, was arrested in 1531 after he publically criticised the practice of giving money to the Church rather than donating it directly to the poor - he was imprisoned for 2 years . None of the people mentioned were killed for their actions, but the fact that they were brought before the authorities speaks volumes for the fear that any religous difference threatened to undermine religious unity . It is notanle that some of those arrested for Illuminism were among Spain's most pious and devout individuals and this reveals that they were never really a threat to Catholicism in Spain despiute the attention they received |
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Standard of Catholicism |
. Heresy, made worse by ignorance and superstition, was still a problem in the later years of Charles's rule . Rural parishes provided the bases for an estimated 80% of heretics or non-believers in Spain . In 1547 a report suggested that one out of every twelve people never went to confession . More positively there was an awareness that improvement was needed and the Jesuits did a lot of good work as did some individual clergy, such as the Bishop of Pamplona who ordered that sermons be preached every Sunday . In Toledo, the Inquisition found an improvement in popular religious understanding - those able to recite their 'pater noster' increased from 70% to 85% in the period up to 1556 - however, overall improvements were piecemeal . Thus, a lot of work was done stamping on heresy but less work done improving the standard of Catholicism - The Jesuits did try and improve the situation in the 1540s |
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Loyola and the Jesuits |
. Founded in 1540 by Ignatius Loyola, a former soldier, who studied for the priesthood at Alcala in 1526 . Jesuits were seen as Christian soldiers who were to spread their message around the world . By 1556, there were 1,000 members and 30 colleges across Europe and the New World providing an education for members . The Council of Trent (3 sessions, 1545-63) was Roman Catholicism's answer to Lutheranism - focused on removing corruption and stopping absenteeism, especially from bishops . Much of the work was not fully developed until the Trent Council in Phillip's reign and thus there were still great problems in these aspects by 1556 . It was not a surprise that one of the principal tools held by the Catholic Church in imposing the counter-reform of the Council of Trent was of Spanish origin - the Jesuits . Also, the Spanish Church was still heavily taxed by the Crown and therefore reform was difficult - Charles also collected money from vacant sees . But Charles did appoint Bishops and Inquisitors that tended to be scholars rather than the aristocracy and therefore the quality of the clergy gradually improved - Continuity with the later years of Ferdinand and Isabella |
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Religious unity? 1 |
. Greater on the surface than under Ferdinand and Isabella, as the Moors were expelled . yet there was toleration of the Moriscos in Valencia who often continued to practise their Muslim faith . The influence of Protestantism was being resisted . The Pope had agreed by 1523 that the monarch should have the power to appoint bishops across all of Spain, ecouraging royal authority and uniformity within the Church . The Inquisition was a powerfule tool to ensure that individuals did not stray - despite some criticism of its methods in the early part of Charles's reign, it was generally well-regarded . Charles was officially recognised as head of the Military Orders in Castile . New ideas in Catholicism were acted against (e.g. 'Erasmianism' and 'Illuminism') - The effect of this was to prevent heterodoxy (the development of several brands of Catholicism) . McClive uses the case of Jean Luis Vives as evidence for greater religious unity in Spain - he was a humanist but descended from conversos and his parents still practised their Jewish faith - After the arrest and burning of his father in 1524, he was unable to take up a post at Alcala University |
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Religious unity? 2 |
. McClive claims that Lutheranism had seeped further into Spain - Mcclive concludes that by 1529 there were still pockets of heresy; but, of course, these were minimall . The Protestantism 'scare' did have an effect of focusing society on the dangers of heresy . There were some improvements in the standards of the clergy and in general religious education throughout society . Uneducated priests still existed and there was considerable laxity in religion in many deeper rural areas, despite the work of the Inquisition . The concept of 'limpieza de sangre' became more deep-rooted - Conversos were still regarded with suspicion . 'Old Christians' were still popularly seen as being at the heart of traditional Catholicism . Dominicans and Francisans (religious orders) played a key role in upholding traditional conservative Catholicism in 'Spain' . Spain was to become the bulwark against the European reformation (note the work of the Jesuits) . Spain was largely insulated from the wider European Reformation |
