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51 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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Learning |
A process by which behaviour or knowledge changes as a result of experience |
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Behaviourism |
Psychology should be an objective science that involves the study of observable behaviour without reference to internal, unobservable processes |
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Classical conditioning (or Pavlovian conditioning) |
Learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus elicits a response that was originally caused by another stimulus Responses are automatic (reflexes) Stimulus: an external event or cue that elicits a response |
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Classical conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) and Unconditioned response (UR) |
Unconditioned stimulus: A stimulus that elicits a reflexive response without learning Unconditioned response: A reflexive, unlearned reaction to an unconditioned stimulus Does not require learning or purposeful behaviours. It happens automatically. |
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Classical conditioning Conditioned stimulus (CS) and Conditioned response (CR) |
Conditioned stimulus: a once-neutral stimulus that later elicits a conditioned response because it had a history of being paired with an unconditioned stimulus Conditioned response: the learned response that occurs to the conditioned stimulus |
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Classical conditioning and the brain |
- Classical conditioning is a simple biological process - Connections between specific group of neurons strengthens during each instance of classical conditioning |
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7 Determinants of Strong Classical Conditioning |
1. strong unconditioned stimuli (US) produce stronger conditioned responses (CR) than weak unconditioned stimuli 2. as the number of pairings of a CS with a US increases, the CS acquires an increasing ability to elicit a CR 3. when a CS is always associated with a given US, the CS is better able to elicit the CR than if the pairing is only intermittent 4. when multiple stimuli precede a US, the stimulus that is most highly correlated with the US is most likely to become a strong US 5. stimuli that are the focus of attention are more likely to become CSs than any inconspicuous or unnoticed stimuli 6. a predictive stimulus must occur before (not after) a US for conditioning to occur 7. short time lags between the onset of a CS and the onset of a US facilitate classical conditioning |
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Acquisition |
The initial phase of learning in which a response is established In classical conditioning, acquisition is the phase which a neutral stimulus is repeatedly paired with the US |
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Extinction in classical conditioning |
The loss or weakening of a conditional response when a conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus no longer occur together |
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Spontaneous recovery |
The reoccurrence of a previously extinguished conditioned response, typically after some times has passed since extinction |
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Generalization |
A process in which a response that originally occurs to a specific stimulus also occurs to a different , though similar stimulus Generalization allows for flexibility in learned behaviours |
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Discrimination |
Occurs when an organism learns to respond to one original stimulus but not to new stimuli that may be similar to original stimulus |
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Conditioned emotional response |
Consist of emotional and physiological responses that develop to a specific object or situation Being created by advertisers to influence our responses |
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Contextual fear conditioning |
If an organism learns to fear a particular location, then context-related activity in the hippocampus will interact with fear-related activity in the amygdala to produce contextual fear conditioning |
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Preparedness |
The biological predisposition to rapidly learn a response to a particular class of stimuli |
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Conditioned taste aversion |
Acquired dislike or disgust of a food or drink because it was paired with illness Only occurs for the flavour of a particular food rather than to other stimuli that have been presented when you became ill Taste aversion is learned very quickly => important for survival Naturally occurring experience |
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Latent inhibition |
Occurs when a frequent experience with a stimulus before it is paired with an unconditioned stimulus make it less likely that conditioning will occur after a single episode of illness |
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Conditioned drug tolerance |
Overtime, more drugs will be needed to override preparedness responses so that the desired effect can be obtained |
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Systematic desensitization |
Gradual exposure to a feared stimulus is coupled with relaxation training |
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Flooding |
The client is directly exposed to the feared stimulus early in therapy session and for a long period of time |
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Operant conditioning |
A type of learning in which behaviour is influence by consequences |
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Operant vs classical conditioning |
Classical conditioning: Typically affects reflexive responses Does not require rewards Operant conditioning: Involves voluntary actions A response and a consequence are required for learning to take place. Without a response of some kind, there can be no consequence |
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Contingency |
A consequence depends upon an action |
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Reinforcement |
A process in which an event or reward that follows a response increase the likelihood of that response occurring again Reinforcer: a stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that increase the probability of that response occurring again. |
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Operant reinforcement model |
A : B => C Antecedent - stimulus in the environment that sets the occasion for the behaviour to occur Behaviour - whatever the person (or animal) says or does Consequence - what happens as a result of the behaviour |
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Law of effect |
The idea that responses followed by satisfaction will occur again and those that are not followed by satisfaction become less likely |
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Punishment |
A process that decrease the future probability of a response Punisher: A stimulus that is contingent upon a response, and that results in a decrease in behaviours |
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Positive/Negative and Reinforcement/Punishment |
Positive: Stimulus is added to a situation, can refer to both reinforcement and punishment
Negative: Stimulus is removed from a situation, can refer to both reinforcement and punishment
Reinforcement: This increases the chances of a behaviour occurring again
Punishment: This decrease the chances of a behaviour occurring again |
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Positive reinforcement |
The strengthening of behaviour after potential reinforcer such as praise, money, or nourishment follow that behaviour Can be highly effective method of rewarding desired behaviours among humans and other species |
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Negative reinforcement |
The strengthening of behaviour because it removes or diminishes a stimulus |
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Negative reinforcement Avoidance learning |
A specific type of negative reinforcement that removes the possibility that a stimulus will occur |
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Negative reinforcement Escape learning |
Occurs if a response removes a stimulus that is already present |
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Positive punishment |
A process which a behaviour decreases in frequency because it was followed by a particular, usually unpleasant, stimulus |
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Negative punishment |
Occurs when a behaviour decreases because it removes or diminishes a particular stimulus |
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Primary and secondary reinforcers |
Primary reinforcers: reinforcing stimuli that satisfy basic motivational needs - needs that affect an individual's ability to survive (and reproduce, if possible) Secondary reinforcers: stimuli that acquire their reinforcing effects only after we learn that they have value |
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Discriminative stimulus |
A cue or event that indicates that a response, if made, will be reinforced |
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Discrimination and generalization in operant conditioning |
In operant conditioning, discrimination and generalization appears to be dopamine-secreting neurons, while in classical conditioning, it is due to the strengthening of synapses as a result of simultaneous firing |
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Schedules of Reinforcement |
Reinforcement schedule - rules that determine when reinforcement is available Continuous reinforcement - reinforcement is provided every time the desired response occurs Intermittent reinforcement - reinforcement is provided only some of the times that the desired response occurs |
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Interval Schedules of Reinforcement |
The pattern of reinforcement is based on the amount of time that has passed since the previous reinforcement Fixed-interval schedule - a behaviour is reinforced after a specific amount of time has passed (e.g., every 2 minutes). Variable-interval schedule - a behaviour is reinforced after an unspecified or unpredictable amount of time has passed. |
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Ratio Schedules of Reinforcement |
The pattern of reinforcement is based on the number of times that the desirable behaviour occurs. Fixed-ratio schedule - a behaviour is reinforced after a specific number of occurrences of the behaviour (e.g., every 5 times) Variable-ratio schedule - the behaviour is reinforced after an unspecified or unpredictable number of occurrences of the behaviour |
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Extinction |
The weakening of an operant response when reinforcement is no longer available
Extinction is related to dopamine Extinction burst - an increase in responding that occurs during extinction Xxtinction may produce aggressive behaviours |
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Functional assessment |
Involves identifying antecedent stimuli and immediate consequences for a behaviour |
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Reward devaluation |
Behaviour changes when reinforcer loses some of its appeal Can also occur by making one of the rewards less appealing |
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Shaping |
A procedure in which a specific operant response is created by reinforcing successive approximation of that response |
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Shaping Process of shaping |
1. specify the final desired behaviour 2. choose a starting behaviour 3. choose the shaping steps 4. move along at the correct pace |
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Shaping
Moving at correct pace |
- do not move to the next stage too soon - proceed in sufficiently small steps - if you lose a behaviour, return to an earlier approximation - do not progress too slowly - it may impede learning new approximations |
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Partial reinforcement effect |
A phenomenon in which organisms that have been conditioned under partial reinforcement resist extinction longer than those conditioned under continuous reinforcement |
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Latent learning |
Learning that is not immediately expressed by a response until the organism is reinforced for doing so Suggest that individuals engage in more "thinking" than in operant learning |
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Observational learning |
Involves changes in behaviour and knowledge that result from watching others |
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Processes in observational learning |
Attention (to the act or behaviour) Memory (for the act or behaviour) Ability to reproduce (the act or behaviour) Motivation (to produce the act or behaviour) |
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Imitation |
Recreating someone else's motor behaviour or expression, often to accomplish a specific goal Model: The person/animal who first display the behaviour |
