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159 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What established the first psychological lab |
- Wilhelm Wundt in 1879 in Leipzig Germany - he studied the content of consciousness - introduced the concept of introspection |
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Structuralism |
- Wundt and titchener used introspection to reveal the structure of the human mind |
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Functionalism |
- promoted by James and include cues by Darwin - explored how mental and behavioral process function |
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Psychodynamic |
How behavior springs from unconscious drives and conflicts |
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Behaviorism |
- behavioral processes function how they enable the organism to adapt, survive, and flourish - the view that psychology should (1) be an objective to science that (2) studies behavior without reference to mental processes |
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Humanistic |
- Historically significant perspective that emphasized human growth potential |
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Cognitive |
- Study of mental processes such as when we perceive, learn, remember, think, communicate, and solve problems |
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What are theories |
- An explanation using an integrated set of principles that organized observations and predicts behaviors or events - general principles that attempt to explain how several facts or events are related |
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What are hypotheses |
Testable prediction, often implied by a theory |
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What are the purposes of theories/hypotheses in psychology |
- theories offer a useful summary - hypotheses create something that can be tested to determine if the theory was correct |
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Operational definition |
- Is the process of strictly defining variables into measurable factors - the scientific study of…. |
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Self-report |
- surveys, questionnaires, interviews |
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Observation |
The action or process of observing something or someone carefully in order to gain information |
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Physiological measures |
- Taken in a wide variety of medical situations with many patient benefiting - EX: measuring body temp with thermometer |
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Correlation designs |
- Study that determines wether or not two variables are correlated. - to study if an increase or decrease in one variable corresponds to an increase or decrease in the other variable |
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Non experimental designs |
The experiments=er compare what is already established rather than designing an experiment |
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3 necessary conditions for an experiment |
- sample group must be assigned randomly - there must be a control group where only one variable can be manipulated - subjects must be randomly assigned to either control or experimental groups (Dependent independent and extraneous variables) |
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Independent variable (IV) |
The condition/event that the experimenter varies in order to see its impact on another variable |
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Dependent variable (DV) |
The variable being measured and manipulated by the IV |
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Extraneous Variables |
- Variables other than the IV that seem likely to influence the DV - These variables are likely controlled by the experimenter in order to make sure the experiment is not manipulated in any way |
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Random assignment |
Assigning participants to experiment control groups by chance, thus minimizing preexisting differences between the different groups |
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Placebo effect |
When someone thinks something is taking effect, but it is actually not |
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Experimental group |
- Group exposed to independent variable - exposed to the treatment being done in the experiment |
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Control group |
- the group not exposed to treatment - just used to see the effectiveness of the IV on other groups |
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Piagets stages of cognitive development (stage 1) |
- birth to 2 year -sensorimotor (experiencing the world through senses and actions; looking, hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping) - Object permanence (understanding that something/someone is still there even if you can’t see them) and stranger anxiety |
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Piagets stages of cognitive development (stage 2) |
- about 2-6/7 years - Preoperational (representing things with words and images, using intuitive rather than logical reasoning) - pretend play and egocentrism (cannot understand another persons perspective) |
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Piagets stages of cognitive development (stage 3) |
- about 7-11 years - concrete operational (thinking logically about events, grasping concrete analogies and operations) - conservation and mathematical transformations |
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Piagets stages of cognitive development (stage 4) |
- about 12 to adulthood - formal operational (reasoning abstractly) - abstract logic and potential for mature moral reasoning |
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Assimilation |
Interpreting our new experiences in terms of our existing schemas EX: a horse may be called a doggy |
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Schemas |
Our organized knowledge |
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Accommodation |
Adapting our current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information EX: an orange would be called a fruit instead of a ball |
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Object permanence |
The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived |
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Conservation |
- The principle that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in forms of objects - EX: kids want more not less, so if you break a piece of candy in two, then the child would rather have that, then just one piece |
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Egocentrism |
- in Piagets theory, the properational child’s difficulty of taking another person point of view - cannot see from someone else’s perspective |
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Centration |
Tendency to focus on one salient aspect of a situation and neglect other, possibly relevant aspects |
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Irreversibility |
- cognitive inability to think in reverse order when manipulation objects and symbols - EX: glasses of two different sizes with the same amount of water in them |
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Secure |
Children that are secure in their bond with their parents and they can explore and when the mother leaves, the child is sad but can be calmed |
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Ambivalent/resistant |
Wont leave the parents side and when they leave the child throws a fit and when the parent comes back the child is mad at them |
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Avoidant |
Immediately explore the room and when the parent leaves, they are unfazed. Much more detached relationship |
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Disorganized/disoriented |
All other children that do not fit in the other sections |
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Eriksons stages a psychosocial development (infancy to 1 year) |
- trust vs mistrust - if they are cared for and needs are met, the infant will develop trust |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (toddlerhood 1-3 years) |
- Autonomy vs shame and doubt - toddles learn to exercise their will and doing for themselves, or they doubt their abilities |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (preschool 3-6 years) |
- initiative vs guilt - preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (elementary 6 years to puberty) |
- competence vs inferiority - children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior (lower than other) |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (adolescence teen years into 20s) |
- identity vs role confusion - teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they become confused about who they are |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (young adulthood 20s to early 40s) |
- intimacy vs isolation - young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially isolated |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (middle adulthood 40s to 60s) |
- generativity vs stagnation - middle-aged people discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually though family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose |
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Eriksons stages of psychosocial development (late adulthood late 60s and up) |
- integrity vs despair - reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure |
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Kohlbergs stages a moral development (stage 1) |
- preconventional morality (before age 9) - self interest; obey rules to avoid punishment of gain concrete rewards - EX: if you save your dying wife, you’ll be a hero |
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Kohlbergs stages of moral development (stage 2) |
- conventional morality (early adolescence) - uphold laws and rules to gain a social approval or maintain social order - EX: if you steal the drug for her, everyone will think you are a criminal |
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Kohlbergs stages of moral development (stage 3) |
- postconventional - you have developed your own sense of ethics |
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Cell body |
The part of the neuron that contains the nucleus, the cells life support center |
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Axons |
The neuron extension that passes messages through its branches to other neurons or to muscles or glands |
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Dendrites |
A neurons often bushy branching extensions that receive and integrate messages, conducting impulses toward the cell body |
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Synapse |
- the junction between the 2 neurons - the tiny gap at this junction is called the synaptic gap or synaptic cleft |
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Myelin sheath |
- A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons - enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses hop from one node to the next |
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Terminal buttons |
Structures on the end of a neurons axon that carry signals to neighboring neurons, glands, or muscles |
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Neurotransmitters |
- chemical messengers that cross the synaptic gaps between neurons - when released, neurotransmitters travel across the synapse and bind to receptor sites on the receiving neuron, which influences whether that neuron will generate a neural impulse |
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Central nervous system (CNS) |
The brain and the spinal cord |
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Peripheral nervous system (PNS) |
The sensory and motor neurons that connect the CNS to the rest of the body |
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Somatic nervous system |
- the division of the PNS that controls the body’s skeletal muscles - the skeletal nervous system |
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Autonomic nervous system |
The past of the PNS that controls the glands and the muscle the internal organs (such as heart) |
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Sympathetic nervous systems |
- the division of the autonomic nervous system that arouses the body mobilizing its energy - get you ready to go |
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Parasympathetic nervous system |
The division of the autonomic nervous system that calms the body, conserving its energy |
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Frontal lobe |
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying just behind the forehead - involves speaking and muscle movements and in making plans and judgments |
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Parietal lobe |
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the top of the head and towards the back - received sensory input for touch and body position |
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Occipital lobe |
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying at the back of the head - receives information from the visual fields |
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Temporal lobe |
- the portion of the cerebral cortex lying roughly above the ears - includes auditory areas - receives information primarily from the opposite ear |
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Cornea |
Transparent circular part at the front of the eye that allows light to enter inside and focus on the retina |
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Lens |
Transparent, located behind the pupil and it also helps light focus on the retina |
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Pupil |
A circular opening that lets light pass through and regulates the flow of the light to the retina |
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Retina |
A layer of photoreceptors and glial cells that converts the light entering your eyes, into electrical signals that you optic nerve sends to the brain in order to create an image |
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Trichromatic theory of color vision |
- we have 3 different types of receptors (cones) that respond maximally to different wavelengths on light - long (red) - medium (green) - small (blue) |
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Opponent process theory of color vision |
- color perception depends on neurons that make antagonistic responses to 3 pairs of colors - red/green - blue/yellow - white/black |
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Amplitude |
Loudness |
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Wavelength |
The shorter the length, the higher the sounds and the longer, the lower the sound |
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Pinna (outer) |
Collects sound waves and channels them to the inside of the ear |
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Eardrum (outer) |
- circular and flexible, and begins to vibrate as the incoming sound waves hit it - separated the outer ear from the middle ear |
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Hammer, anvil, and stirrup (middle) |
A small chain of these tiny bones across the middle of the ear that transmit vibration caused by sound waves to the inner ear |
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Cochlea (inner) |
Changing sound waves to nerve signals |
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Basilar membrane (inner) |
- thin strip of tissue with a bunch of tiny hairs that vibrate when nerve signals hit it |
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Place theory |
- we hear different pitches because different sound waves trigger activity at different places along the basilar membrane - this theory goes great with high frequency sounds |
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Frequency theory |
- the rate of neural impulse matches the frequency of the sound - this theory goes great with low frequency sounds |
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Proximity |
We group things that are close together, as being together |
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Similarity |
We group things that appear similar |
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Continuity |
When we look at things we perceive things and group things if they form continuous lines and smooth patterns |
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Closure |
We tend to fill in the gaps when things are missing. We mentally fill in the gaps, close them, to complete the object |
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Binocular cues Retinal disparity |
- seeing things from two different angles gives us a good sense of how far it is - EX: if you close one eye, an object appears to have moved |
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Binocular cues Convergence |
When things come closer to us, for us to focus on them, our eyes converge (cross) |
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Monocular cues Interposition |
If something else is blocking another object, then i know that the object being blocked is further away |
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Monocular cues Linear perspective |
- if you have parallel lines, they appear to meet in the distance - used to determine depth |
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Monocular cues Relative size |
- if you know objects are the same size, if there is a group of things, i can determine the distance of the object(s) |
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Monocular cues Texture gradient |
Things that are closer to me are going to have more texture and detail compared to the objects that are further away |
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Monocular cues Motion parallax |
Things that are close to you appear to be moving way faster than things that are further away from you |
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Alpha |
Awake but starts to slow down/relax |
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Stage 1 |
- very light sleep - theta |
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Stage 2 |
- sleep spindles and k complex waves - theta |
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Stage 3 and 4 |
- deep sleep, sleep walking and talking accurately during this time - delta |
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REM (rapid eye movement) |
- dreaming sleep - increased HR, rapid breathing, genital arousal - sleep paralysis |
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Insomnia |
Difficulty falling asleep, difficulty staying asleep, and premature awakening |
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Sleep apnea |
When someone stops breathing while they are asleep |
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Narcolepsy |
Excessive sleepiness; periodic overwhelming amounts of sleep |
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Night terrors |
A sleep disorder in which a person quickly awakens from a sleep in a terrified state |
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Wish-fulfillment |
- dreams as unconscious wishes - manifest content vs latent content |
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Activation-synthesis |
Dreams are the brains efforts to make sense of meaningless patterns of firing in the brain as we sleep |
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Unconditional stimulus (UCS) |
- sound, taste, smell, etc. that triggers a natural response - there is not process of learning it - EX: when the dog smells food it start salivating, that is out of the dogs control. The UCS is the food |
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Unconditional response (UCR) |
- natural response to a stimulus - EX: dog salivates in response to food. Salivating is the UCR. |
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Conditioned stimulus |
- goes from an UCS to a CS after associating the stimulus with something - learned - EX: a dog has associated a bell with food, so when the dog hears the bell, it starts salivating. The bell is the CS |
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Conditioned response |
- the response to the CS - EX: a dog salivates to a bell associated with the food, instead of to the food. The CR is salivating. |
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Acquisition |
Formation of a new conditioned response tendency when one links a neutral stimulus and an unconditioned stimulus so that the neutral stimulus begins triggering a conditioned response |
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Extinction |
Loss of conditioning, CS no longer leads to CR |
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Spontaneous recovery |
After extinction, the CR that went away, has now reappeared |
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Generalization |
- once a response has been conditioned, any stimulus that has similar stimulus would then get the same response - EX: if a child has a dog and they call it a dog, then they might look at a horse and call that a dog also |
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Discrimination |
- being able to distinguish CS to other stimulus that are similar to it - EX: a child that used to call everything that was shaped similar to a dog, a dog, they now call them mammals instead |
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Shaping |
An operant conditioning procedure in which reinforcers guide behavior toward closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior |
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Positive reinforcments |
Increasing behaviors by presenting something that one enjoys |
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Negative reinforcement |
- increasing behaviors by taking away something that one does not like - not a punishment |
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Fixed ratio |
Getting reinforced after a fixed number of responses |
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Variable ratio |
Getting reinforced after unpredictable number of responses |
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Fixed interval |
Getting reinforced after a certain amount of time |
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Variable interval |
Getting reinforced after an unpredictable amount of time |
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Operational learning 4 key elements |
- attention (paying attention) - retention (remember) - reproduction (reproduce the behavior) - motivation (what is the result of my behavior) |
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Sensory memory |
- the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system - seeing, hearing, feeling something for a split second |
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Short-term memory |
activated memory that holds a few intense briefly, such as digits of a phone number while calling, before the information is stored and forgotten |
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Working memory |
A newer understanding of short-term memory that adds conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory |
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Serial position effect |
Our tendency to recall the last (recency effect) and the first (primacy effect) items in a list |
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Priming |
The activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory EX: if a child sees a bench next to a candy store, then they might think of candy next time they see a bench |
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Retroactive |
When the new information you are going interferes with your ability to remember old information |
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Proactive |
When your old information interferes with your ability to gain new information |
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Decay |
Loss of information through nonuse (memory trace faded with time) |
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Interference |
Information in memory disrupts recalling any other information |
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Ineffective encoding |
- lack of attention - low level of processing |
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Retrograde amnesia |
- Amnesia where you cant recall memories that were formed before the event that caused the amnesia - an inability to retrieve information from ones past |
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Anterograde amnesia |
- A type of memory loss that occurs when you cant form new memories - an inability to form new memories |
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Interactionism |
- A theoretical perspective in which society is thought to be a product of the everyday social interactions - EX: There is not necessary relationship between a red truck with sirens and a fire |
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Attributions |
- Trying to understand others or our behaviors - inferences drawn about the causes of events, others’ behavior and our own behavior |
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Fundamental attribution error |
- we tend to make internal distributional attributional biases. We tend to blame it on “them” - EX: if someone interferes with the way that you are driving and you say that they are an awful driver. Blaming it on the individual instead of including other situational factors |
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Credibility |
An expert tying to persuade you |
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Attractiveness |
Physical attractiveness (models) and things like fame of celebrities |
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Similarity |
A student presenting a message to other students about tuition |
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Message must |
- capture attention - be understanding - be convincing - be memorable |
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Need for cognition |
- how much information you need - EX: thinking about the price, quality, etc. about what kind of toilet paper you are going to buy |
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Initial attitude position |
EX: if you are strongly against tuition increases and someone gives you a strong argument on why you should be okay with it, then your attitude is not going to change |
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Conformity |
When people change their beliefs, attitudes, actions, or perceptions to be more like a group they want to be a part of |
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Obediance |
A form of social influence elicited in response to a direct order or command |
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Compliance |
Submission to the demands, wishes, or suggestions of others |
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Milgram (1965) |
- obedience to shock others - study to see if you will obey an authority figure |
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Asch (1955) |
- conformity of line lengths - study to see how much our own opinions are influenced by those of a group |
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Sherif (1936) |
- autokinetic effect (group norms) - how mental evaluation norms were created by human beings |
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Ingratiation |
Getting someone to like you by using compliments and being nice |
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Reciprocity |
Hearing that someone else likes you, makes you like them in return |
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Foot-in-the-door |
First asking for a small request and then getting to the larger one |
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Door-in-the-face |
First ask for a large request and then ask for what you want |
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Low-balling |
Agree to a request and then after the agreement is made, the terms are changed |
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Bystander effect |
- the presence of multiple witnesses to an event inhibits the tendency of each individual to help - EX: if someone breaks down on the highway it is less likely for someone to stop and help than if you are broke down on a side street that barely any cars drive on |
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Diffusion of responsibility |
If a lot of people see someone crash, then the individual responsibility decreases |
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Informational influence |
EX: everyone sees someone crash, they look around at each other and notice that no one is acting on the situation, then you are less likely to help |
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Evaluation apprehension |
You don’t help in a crown when someone is hurt because you are scared to feel embarrassed |
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Decision model of helping |
- notice event - interpret as emergency - assume responsibility - identify means to help |
