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214 Cards in this Set
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developmental psychology
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the study of continuity and change across the life span
lecture: the science of continuity and change across the lifespan; from conception through adulthood and eventual death |
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zygote
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a fertilized egg that contains chromosomes from both an egg and a sperm
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germinal stage
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the 2-week period that begins at conception
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embryonic stage
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a period that lasts from the 2nd week until about the 8th week
--> embryo continues to divide and its cells begin to differentiate |
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fetal stage
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a period that lasts from the 9th week until birth
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myelination
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the formation of a fatty sheath around the axons of a neuron
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placenta
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the organ that physically links the bloodstreams of the mother and the embryo or fetus and permits the exchange of certain chemicals
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feratogens
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agents that impair development
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fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
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a developmental disorder that stems from heavy alcohol use by the mother during pregnancy
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infancy
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the stage of development that begins at birth and lasts between 18 and 24 months
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habituation
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the tendency for organisms to respond less intensely to a stimulus as the frequency of exposure to that stimulus increases
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motor development
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the emergence of the ability to execute physical actions (eg. reaching, grasping, crawling, walking)
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reflexes
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specific patterns of motor response that are triggered by specific patterns of sensory stimulation
lecture: involuntary movements or actions in response to certain stimuli |
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cephalocaudal rule
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the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the head to the feet
lecture: growth occurs in a top-to-bottom direction |
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proximodistal rule
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the tendency for motor skills to emerge in sequence from the centre to the periphery
lecture: growth occurs in a centre-out direction |
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cognitive development (4)
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the emergence of the ability to think and understand
1. sensorimotor stage 2. preoperational stage 3. concrete operational stage 4. formal operational stage |
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sensorimotor stage
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a period of development that begins at birth and lasts through infancy
lecture: the first stage of child's development marked by the complete absence of abstract thoughts; for the child in this stage, the only things in their minds are what they can perceive and their own body |
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schemas
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theories about the way the world works
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assimilation
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infants apply their schemas in novel situations
lecture: integrating new information into an existing schema |
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accomodation
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infants revise their schemas in light of new information
lecture: changing or making new schemas once new information is discovered |
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object permanence
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the belief that objects exist even when they are not visible
lecture: the knowledge that if something can't be seen it continues to exist |
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childhood
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the period that begins at about 18 - 24 months and lasts until about 11 - 14 years
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preoperational stage
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the stage of cognitive development that begins at about 2 years and ends at about 6 years, during which children develop a preliminary understanding of the physical world
lecture: the second Piagetian stage during which children understand objects and events, but still struggle to think about the minds of others or to really understand the world in logical ways |
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concrete operational stage
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the stage of cognitive development that begins at about 6 years and ends at about 11 years, during which children learn how actions or "operations" can transform the "concrete" objects of the physical world
lecture: the third Piagetian stage during which children become capable of doing some basic logical thinking |
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conservation
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the notion that the quantitative properties of an object are invariant despite changes in the object's appearance
lecture: the ability for children to logically reason that quantity of an object is the same despite changes in the object's appearance |
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centration
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the tendency to focus on just one property of an object to the exclusion of all others
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formal operational stage
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the final stage of cognitive development that begins around the age of 11, during which children learn to reason about abstract concepts
lecture: the final Piagetian stage during which children become fully capable of logical and abstract thinking and are no longer dominated by their own perceptions or intuitions about the world |
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egocentrism
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the failure to understand that the world appears differently to different people
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theory of mind
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the understanding that other people's mental representations guide their behaviour
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attachment
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an emotional bond
lecture: the earliest emotional and social bond that forms between newborn infants and their primary caregivers |
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strange situation
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a behavioural test used to determine a child's attachment style
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attachment styles (4)
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- secure
- avoidant - ambivalent - disorganized |
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temperaments
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characteristic patterns of emotional reactivity, including tendencies towards irritability, fearfulness, loud noises, new people, etc
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internal working model of relationships
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a set of beliefs about the self, the primary caregiver, and the relationship between them
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secure attachment (60% of all kids)
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primary caregiver will respond
lecture: children notice the caregiver leaving and may show distress; when the caregiver comes back they are calmed down by the presence |
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avoidant attachment (20% of all kids)
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primary caregiver will not respond
lecture: children are not as upset when the caregiver leaves and become angry and rebuff attention upon her return |
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ambivalent attachment (15% of all kids)
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uncertain about whether their primary caregiver will respond
lecture: children are very upset when the caregiver leaves but inconsolable when caregiver returns |
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disorganized attachment (5% of all kids)
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confused about their caregivers
lecture: children show no consistent pattern as caregiver leaves and returns |
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preconventional stage
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a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by its consequences for the actor
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conventional stage
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a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is primarily determined by the extent to which it conforms to social rules
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postconventional stage
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a stage of moral development in which the morality of an action is determined by a set of general principles that reflect core values
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adolescence
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the period of development that begins with the onset of sexual maturity (about 11 to 14 years of age) and lasts until the beginning of adulthood (18-21 years)
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puberty
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the bodily changes associated with sexual maturity
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primary sex characteristics
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bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction
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secondary sex characteristics
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bodily structures that change dramatically with sexual maturity but that are not directly involved in reproduction
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adulthood
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the stage of development that begins around 18 to 21 years and ends at death
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longitudinal studies
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experiments in which participants come in multiple times as they grow older so changes can be observed over time
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cross-sectional studies
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experiments where groups of participants that differ in age perform the same task
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nativism
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the theory that children are born with specific, structured abilities or those that will automatically develop with maturity
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empiricism
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the theory that children must acquire certain skills with experience and practice
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stage-theories
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children develop through a series of universal "stages" and every child must complete a stage in a specific way before moving to the next one; different abilities come from different stages
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continuos-theories
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each child develops according to their own path; development is fluid and continuos and any ability can emerge at any time depending on the child's experiences and/or genetics
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teratogens
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environmental agents that can cause damage
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perceptual development
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the emergence of children's ability to perceive the world; including recognizing objects, faces, and being able to categorize them as such
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perceptual narrowing
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when an initially broad perception narrows with experience
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imprinting
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extremely rapid and automatic learning that occurs in baby animals whereby they attach themselves to who they think is their caregiver
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strange situations
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a behavioural test that examines how each child is attached to their caregiver
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parenting style
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characteristic patterns of parenting including degree of attention to child, amount of help, etc
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three traditional views of the infant
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- innately evil: society must stamp out with proper upbringing
- innately good: society corrupts the "noble savage" - innately nothing: no sense of morality at all; must get everything from culture |
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uneven development
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children develop some complex abilities incredibly quickly, but others incredibly slowly
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cross-cultural effects
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children's development is not identical across cultures
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puberty will strongly affect bodies in two ways
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1. primary sexual characteristics: bodily structures that are directly involved in reproduction, including genitalia, testes, ovaries, etc.
2. secondary sexual characteristics: bodily structures that will change due to puberty but are not involved in reproduction |
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testosterone
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sex hormone responsible for most primary and secondary sexual characteristics in men
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estrogen
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sex hormone responsible for most primary and secondary sexual characteristics in women
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xenoestrogens
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a synthetic hormone that emulates the effect of estrogen and can be found in improperly treated food
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prefrontal cortex
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the region in the front of the brain that is associated in decision-making and risk-taking
--> begins to develop at the onset of puberty |
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delay of gratification
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the ability to control one's impulses and temptation of an immediate reward for a later one
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Erikson's Psychosocial Development Stages
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a theory of the typical challenges faced by people throughout their lifetime that must be solved if they are to develop normally
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Erikson's Pyschosocial Development Stages (8)
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1. Trust vs Mistrust: the initial goal felt by infants where they must establish trust and attachment to parents
2. Autonomy vs Shame: toddlers must have control over their physical and motor skills 3. Initiative vs Guilt: children now face with new social and academic challenges and must feel productive in their day to day life 4. Industry vs Inferiority: children now face with new social and academic challenges and must feel productive in their day to day life 5. Identity vs Role Confusion: teenagers must develop a unique and independent sense of self, including social roles, gender, etc 6. Intimacy vs Isolation: young adults must find love 7. Generativity vs Stagnation: adults must continue feeling a sense of growth 8. Ego Integrity vs Despair: older adults must feel that their life have been meaningful and that they can face death |
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cohort effect
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a problem in lifespan development research, whereby differences between young and old adults could be largely attributed to changes in socialization, nutrition, or experience with computers rather than age
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working memory
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the ability to remember information in the short-term
--> significantly decreases with age |
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episodic memory
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the long-term memory for specific events that happened
--> decreases with age |
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dementia
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a broad category of diseases that reduce the ability to think, remember, speak, and control one's emotions with age
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mild cognitive impairment (MCI)
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the first and very subtle stage of dementia during which patients first start experiencing problems with attention and memory
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Alzheimer's Disease
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the most common form of dementia; includes significant loss of working and episodic memory problems with finding words, reasoning, spatial navigation, and issues with controlling emotions
--> affects entire brain, but mostly hippocampus |
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mental disorder
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a persistent disturbance of dysfunction in behaviour, thoughts, or emotions that causes significant distress or impairment
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medical model
(lecture: medical model of disorders) |
abnormal psychological experiences are conceptualized as illnesses that, like physical illnesses, have biological and environmental causes, defined symptoms, and possible cures
lecture: all psychological disorders are due to physical/biological causes, have clear and identifiable symptoms, and can be cured like any other disease |
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signs
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objectively observed indicators of a disorder
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symptoms
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subjectively reported behaviours, thoughts, and emotions
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disorder
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a common set of signs and symptoms
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disease
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a known pathological process affecting the body
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diagnosis
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a determination as to whether a disorder or disease is present
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Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM)
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a classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems
lecture: a classification system that describes the features used to diagnose each recognized mental disorder and indicates how the disorder can be distinguished from other, similar problems |
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comorbidity
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the co-occurence of two or more disorders in a single individual
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biopsychosocial perspective
(lecture: biopsychosocial model) |
explains mental disorders as the result of interactions among biological, psychological, and social factors
lecture: psychological disorders are caused by a complex network of biological factors, psychological issues, and social factors |
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diathesis-stress model
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a person may be predisposed for a psychological disorder that remains unexpressed until triggered by stress
lecture: a person's predisposition towards a disorder may remain unexpressed until they encounter a very stressful event and fail to deal with it |
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Research Domain Criteria Project (RDoC)
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a new initiative that aims to guide the classification and understanding of mental disorders by revealing the basic processes that give rise to them
lecture: a new approach to classifying and understanding mental disorders that focuses on specific cognitive processes that give rise to them |
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anxiety disorder
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the class of mental disorder in which anxiety is the predominant feature
lecture: the class of mental disorders in which anxiety or excessive fear in response to some stimulus or situation is the dominant characteristic |
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phobic disorders
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marked, persistent, and excessive fear and avoidance of specific objects, activities, or situations
--> response to a very specific stimulus |
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specific phobia
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an irrational fear of a particular object or situation that markedly interferes with an individual's ability to function
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social phobia
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an irrational fear of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed
lecture: the irrational fear of social situations, especially of being publicly humiliated or embarrassed |
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preparedness theory
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people are instinctively predisposed toward certain fears
lecture: the theory that we are biologically programmed to be afraid of certain things automatically or after little experience |
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panic disorder
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the sudden occurrence of multiple psychological and physiological symptoms that contribute to a feeling of stark terror
lecture: an anxiety disorder characterized by sudden and unexpected panic attacks, including severe shortness of breath, sweating, dizziness, fear of dying and terror |
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agoraphobia
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a specific phobia involving a fear of public places
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generalized anxiety disorder (GAD)
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chronic excessive worry accompanied by three or more of the following symptoms: restlessness, fatigue, concentration problems, irritability, muscle tension, and sleep disturbance
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obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD)
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repetitive, intrusive thoughts (obsessions) and ritualistic behaviours (compulsions) designed to fend off those thoughts interfere significantly with an individual's functioning
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post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD)
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chronic physiological arousal, recurrent unwanted thoughts or images of the trauma, and avoidance of things that call the traumatic event to mind
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mood disorders
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mental disorders that have mood disturbance as their predominant feature and take two main forms: depression (unipolar depression) and bipolar disorder
lecture: mental disorders whose primary symptom is large disturbances in emotions and mood (either positive or negative) |
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major depressive disorder (or unipolar depression)
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a severely depressed mood and/or inability to experience pleasure that lasts 2 or more weeks and is accompanied by feelings of worthlessness, lethargy, and sleep and appetite disturbance
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dysthymia
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the same cognitive and bodily problems as in depression are present, but they are less severe and last longer, persisting for at least 2 years
lecture: a form of depression less severe than a major episode but lasting for 2 years or more |
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double depression
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a moderately depressed mood that persists for at least 2 years and is punctuated by periods of major depression
lecture: a mix of dysthymia punctuated by episodes of major depression |
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seasonal affective disorder (SAD)
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recurrent depressive episodes in a seasonal pattern
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helplessness theory
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individuals who are prone to depression automatically attribute negative experiences to causes that are internal, stable, and global
lecture: the theory that depressed individuals have, through experience, learned that they have no control over the world, and thus have an explanatory style of negative events that is stable, global, and internal stable - bad things will keep happening forever global - bad event is going to affect everything internal - bad event is all my fault |
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bipolar disorder
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a condition characterized by cycles of abnormal, persistent high mood (mania) and low mood (depression)
lecture: mood disorders in which people alternate between feelings of depression and euphoria/mania |
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expressed emotion
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a measure of how much hostility, criticism, and emotional over-involvement are used when speaking about a family member with a mental disorder
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schizophrenia
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the profound disruption of basic psychological processes; a distorted perception of reality; altered or blunted emotions; and disturbances in thought, motivation, and behaviour
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positive symptoms (schizophrenia)
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thoughts and behaviours not seen in those without the disorder
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hallucinations (schizophrenia)
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false perceptual experiences that have a compelling sense of being real despite the absence of external stimulation
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delusions (schizophrenia)
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patently false beliefs, often bizarre and grandiose, that are maintained in spite of their irrationality
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disorganized speech (schizophrenia)
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a severe disruption of verbal communication in which ideas shift rapidly and incoherently among unrelated topics
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grossly disorganized behaviour (schizophrenia)
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behaviour that is inappropriate for the situation or ineffective in attaining goals, often with specific motor disturbances
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catatonic behaviour (schizophrenia)
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a marked decrease in all movement or an increase in muscular rigidity and overactivity
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negative symptoms (schizophrenia)
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deficits or disruptions to normal emotions and behaviours
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cognitive symptoms (schizophrenia)
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deficits in cognitive abilities, specifically in executive functioning, attention, and working memory
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domain hypothesis (schizophrenia)
(lecture: dopamine hypothesis) |
the idea that schizophrenia involves an excess of dopamine activity
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autism spectrum disorder (ASD)
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a condition beginning in early childhood in which a person shows persistent communication deficits as well as restricted and repetitive patterns of behaviours, interests, or activities
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attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD)
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a persistent pattern of severe problems with inattention and/or hyperactivity or impulsiveness that cause significant impairments in functioning
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conduct disorder
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persistent pattern of deviant behaviour involving aggression to people or animals, destruction of property, deceitfulness or theft, or serious rule violations
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personality disorders
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enduring patterns of thinking, feeling, or relating to others or controlling impulses that deviate from cultural expectations and cause distress or impaired functioning
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antisocial personality disorder (APD)
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a pervasive pattern of disregard for and violation of the rights of others that begins in childhood or early adolescence and continues into adulthood
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suicide attempt
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potentially harmful behaviour with some intention of dying
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suicide
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intentional self-inflicted death
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nonsuicidal self-injury (NSSI)
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direct, deliberate destruction of body tissue in the absence of any attempt to die
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characteristics of disorders (3)
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- long term: they occur over a prolonged period of time
- impairment: they cause problems in everyday functioning, either as self-reported or reported by others - rare: the behaviours are not commonly displayed by other members of our society |
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categorical model
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the DSM-5 assumes that clinical disorders are like disease - you either have them or you don't
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blood-injection-injury
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the fear of blood, injury, injection, and other medical procedures
--> triggers a severe drop in blood pressure that can lead to fainting |
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fear conditioning
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the theory that phobias are caused by associating a particular stimulus with a negative event through everyday life experience
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depressive disorder
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mood disorders in which there is pronounced feelings of depressed/low mood
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depressive realism
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the findings that, in some situations, depressed individuals are actually more accurate at judging future outcomes and their own degree of control
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positive symptoms of schizophrenia (4)
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- hallucinations
- delusions - disorganized speech - disorganized behaviour |
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negative symptoms of schizophrenia (4)
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- flat affect
- social withdrawal - lack of motivation - problems with attention and working memory |
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schizophrenic brains show... (3)
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- reduced grey matter
- reduced white matter - enlarged ventricles |
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schizoid personality disorder
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an odd/eclectic personality disorder marked by a pervasive pattern of social detachment and restricted range of emotional expression
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antisocial personality disorder
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a dramatic/erratic personality disorder associated with a pervasive pattern of disregard for others and high impulsivity that begins in childhood and continues into adulthood
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dependent personality disorder
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an anxious/inhibited type of personality disorder in which there is a strong need and dependence on other people, including need for approval, intense fear of losing relationship, and inability to spend any time alone
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neurodevelopmental disorders
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clinical disorders that manifest themselves in early childhood and significantly impair development and later functioning
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psychological treatment
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people interact with a clinician in order to use the environment to change their brain and behaviour
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biological treatment
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the brain is treated directly with drugs, surgery, or some other direct intervention
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psychotherapy
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an interaction between a socially sanctioned clinician and someone suffering from a psychological problem, with the goal of providing support or relief from the problem
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eclectic psychotherapy
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a form of psychotherapy that involved drawing on techniques from different forms of therapy, depending on the client and the problem
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psychodynamic psychotherapies
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therapies that explore childhood events and encourage individuals to use this understanding to develop insight into their psychological problems
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free association
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client reports every thought that enters the mind without censorship or filtering
lecture: a technique whereby the therapist probes about what associations the patient has in response to a particular event |
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dream analysis
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psychoanalysis may treat dreams as metaphors that symbolize unconscious conflicts or wishes that contain disguised clues that the therapist can help the client understand
lecture: Freud believed that the unconscious partly reveals itself in our dreams, so psychodynamic therapists will often ask their patients to keep a dream journal and will discuss the images occurring in their dreams |
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interpretation
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the therapist deciphers the meaning underlying what the client says and does
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analysis of resistance
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the process of "trying on" different interpretations of the client's thoughts and actions
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resistance
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a reluctance to cooperate with treatment for fear of confronting unpleasant unconscious material
lecture: the patient's reluctance to cooperate with treatment due to their defence mechanisms |
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transference
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an event that occurs in psychoanalysis when the analyst begins to assume a major significance in the client's life and the client reacts to the analyst based on unconscious childhood fantasies
lecture: strong feelings that the patient develops towards the therapist, often projecting their unconscious onto them; major sign of unconscious conflict |
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interpersonal psychotherapy (IPT)
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a form of psychotherapy that focuses on helping clients improve current relationships
lecture: a modern form of psychodynamic therapy aimed at helping people improve current relationships and in which the therapist plays a much more active supporting role |
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person-centred therapy
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assumes that all individuals have a tendency toward growth and that this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist
lecture: form of therapy that assumes that all people have a tendency towards growth and that this growth can be facilitated by acceptance and genuine reactions from the therapist |
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Gestalt therapy
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has the goal of helping the client become aware of his or her thoughts, behaviours, experiences, and feelings and to "own" or take responsibility for them
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behaviour therapy
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disordered behaviour is learned and symptom relief is achieved through changing overt maladaptive behaviours into more constructive behaviours
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token economy
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giving clients "tokens" for desired behaviours, which they can later trade for rewards
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exposure therapy
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confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in the emotional response
lecture: an approach to treatment that involves confronting an emotion-arousing stimulus directly and repeatedly, ultimately leading to a decrease in emotional response |
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cognitive therapy
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helping a client identify and correct any distorted thinking about self, others, or the world
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cognitive restructuring
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involves teaching clients to question the automatic beliefs, assumptions, and predictions that often lead to negative emotions and to replace negative thinking with more realistic and positive beliefs
lecture: a cognitive technique that forces patients to question their automatic beliefs, assumptions ,and predictions |
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mindfulness meditation
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teaches an individual to be fully present in each moment; to be aware of his or her thoughts, feelings, and sensations; and to detect symptoms before they become a problem
lecture: a form of meditation in which the person becomes aware of their current sensations and attends to the present moment |
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cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT)
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a blend of cognitive and behavioural therapeutic strategies
lecture: therapies that attempt to replace maladaptive or irrational thoughts and behaviours with more adaptive, rational ones |
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couples therapy
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a married, cohabiting, or dating couple is seen together in therapy to work on problems usually arising within the relationship
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family therapy
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psychotherapy involving members of a family
lecture: therapy that treats the family as a system and views individual unwanted behaviour as influenced by, or directed at, other family members |
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group therapy
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a technique in which multiple participants (who often do not know one another at the outset) work on their individual problems in a group atmosphere
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antipsychotic drugs
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treat schizophrenia and related psychotic disorders
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psychopharmacology
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the study of drug effects on psychological states and symptoms
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antianxiety medications
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drugs that help reduce a person's experience of fear or anxiety
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antidepressants
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a class of drugs that help lift people's moods
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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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shock therapy; a treatment that involves inducing a brief seizure by delivering an electrical shock to the brain
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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
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a treatment that involves placing a powerful pulsed magnet over a person's scalp, which alters neuronal activity in the brain
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phototherapy
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a therapy that involves repeated exposure to bright light
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psychosurgery
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the surgical destruction of specific brain cells
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natural improvement
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the tendency of symptoms to return to their mean or average level
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placebo
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an inert substance or procedure that has been applied with the expectation that a healing response will be produced
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iatrogenic illeness
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a disorder or symptom that occurs as a result of a medical or psychotherapeutic treatment itself
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biomedical treatments
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treatments aimed at directly altering the functioning of the brain
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psychiatrist
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a medical doctor (MD) who is allowed to prescribe medication but is often trained in psychotherapy
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clinical psychologist
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a psychologist with a doctorate degree (PhD) who does research in clinical psychology and is trained in various forms of psychotherapy, but is not allowed to prescribe medicine
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three approaches for treatment
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- get rid of disorder
- get rid of trigger - coping methods |
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problems with treatment (3)
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- self-report is unreliable
- worst symptoms often go on their own - placebo effect |
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placebo
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an inert substance or procedure that is applied with the expectation that a healing response will be produced
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efficacy
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the ability for the treatment to deal with the disorder better than any other treatment or better than doing nothing
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effectiveness
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the ability for psychologists to administer the treatment and for patients to actually use it without significant side effects
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treatment outcome research
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rigorously controlled experiments that seek to identify the benefits of specific form of treatment is better than another or no treatment at all
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psychoanalysis/psychodynamic therapy
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therapies based on identifying and resolving the underlying unconscious conflict that is causing the disorder
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humanistic/existential therapies
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a broad class of therapies whose purpose is to emphasize the development of human potential and the belief that human nature is inherently positive and can deal with disorders on its own
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unconditional positive regard
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a caring, empathic, nonjudgemental attitude adopted by PCT therapists that they believe will build self-awareness and acceptance
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active listening/mirroring
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empathic listening in which the therapist echoes, restates, and clarifies what the patient said
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motivational interviewing
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a style of therapy whereby the therapist that attempts to clarify and bring forward reasons that the client may want to or may not want to change their behaviour
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behavioural therapies
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therapies that assume that disorders are the product of learned and habitual behaviour and that attempt to replace automatic maladaptive behaviour with constructive one
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cognitive therapies
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therapies that assume that disorders are the product of learned and habitual thinking and that attempt to replace automatic maladaptive thinking with constructive thoughts
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classical conditioning
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a behavioural therapy technique whereby some behaviour or thought are automatically associated with a very negative emotion or feeling
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operant conditioning (reward and punishment)
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a behavioural therapy technique where patients are rewarded for some positive behaviour and/or punished for continuing with the maladaptive behaviour
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serotonin
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neurotransmitter that is primarily related to feelings of well-being and happiness
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dopamine
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neurotransmitters with many complex functions, amongst them increasing activity of various brain regions, and feelings of euphoria
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GABA
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neurotransmitter that generally suppresses or inhibits brain activity
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Norepinephrine
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catecholamine and neurotransmitter that is part of both stress and sympathetic systems; generally increases brain activity, heart rate, etc
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blood-brain barrier
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a fatty coating wrapped around brain blood vessels that prevents many chemicals (especially large molecules) from entering and affecting the brain
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five types of medication
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- antipsychotics
- anxiolytics (anti-anxiety) - antidepressents - mood stabilizers - psychostimulants |
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antipsychotics
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drugs used to treat schizophrenia and other psychotic conditions
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conventional antipsychotics
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exclusively block dopamine receptors (eg. thorazine)
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atypical antipsychotics
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block activity of both serotonin and dopamine (eg. clozaril)
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anxiolytics/anti-anxiety
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drugs used to treat both general and specific anxiety and agitation
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benzodiazepines
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drugs that increase GABA and thus generally decrease brain activity (eg. valium, xanax) most commonly administered and most effective
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buspirone
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drug that stabilizes serotonin levels and is often used with comorbid depression (eg. buspar)
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beta blockers
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drugs that block norepinephrine and thus control muscle tension, blood pressure, and heart rate
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antidepressants
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drugs used to treat both depression and anxiety and lift people's moods
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monoamine oxidase inhibitors (MAOI)
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drugs that increase the activity of norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine
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tricyclic antidepressants
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drugs that increase norepinephrine and serotonin; used for depression and anxiety (eg. Elavil)
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selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (SSRIs)
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the most popular type of antidepressant that selectively increases serotonin activity (eg. prozac, celexa, zoloft)
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mood stabilizers
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drugs used to treat bipolar disorder that attempt to decrease the severity of depressive and manic episodes
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mineral salts
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class of drugs that occur naturally and help decrease adrenaline and increase serotonin, thus helping with both mania and depression (eg. lithium)
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anticonvulsant
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class of drugs that increase GABA and norepinephrine and especially help during manic episodes
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psychostimulants
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drugs used to treat attentional disorders, including ADHD. Selectively release norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine in prefrontal cortex of the brain, boosting ability to pay attention (eg. Ritalin, Adderall)
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invasive treatments
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biomedical treatments in which doctors actively and purposefully alter brain regions through surgery of electro/magnetic currents
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psychosurgery
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therapies in which the doctor selectively removes/lesions a brain region; while it can be effective, there are many side-effects since no single brain region does just one thing
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transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
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administration of mild electromagnetic shock to the surface of the head, temporarily enhancing or impairing select brain regions
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electroconvulsive therapy (ECT)
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a biomedical treatment that induces a brief electrical shock to the brain
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