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74 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
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What is the prime time that infants become larger and stronger? What age do they typically start to crawl? walk? |
Infants become larger and stronger between 3-24 months of age They start crawling between 7-8 months of age They begin to walk an a drunken like fashion around 1 and more maturely around 2 |
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At birth the baby's head is about ____% its adult size and accounts for _____% of the baby's length |
70% |
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Infant growth restriction |
slower growth rates may be associated with SIDS, developmental delay, infections, and poor psychological health |
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What is significant about a babies musculoskeletal system? |
-the bones in an infant's hand and wrist are the first bones to harden -the increases in muscle mass are associated with the babies ability to crawl, walk, or stand alone |
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experience expectant vs. experience dependent processes |
experience expectant: the brain expects that the world will present particular species universal experiences experience dependent: development occurs in response to specific experiences (based on experiences of each individual) |
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Prefrontal area |
located behind the forehead, plays an important role in the development of voluntary behavior (functions in a new way between 7-9 months of age) -increase in infants' ability to regulate themselves (stop themselves from grabbing the first attractive thing they see) |
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Myelination |
myelination of the neurons that link prefrontal cortex and frontal lobes to the brainstem, where emotional responses are generated, creates a new potential for interaction between thinking and emotion |
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The infant brain undergoes considerable development between 6-24 months of age and brain structures are sensitive to the infant's experiences. How does this impact experience expectant and dependent processes in Romanian orphanages? |
Prolonged deprivation in infancy leads to ongoing impairments in intellectual functioning. -during periods of sensitive development orphans may lack the species universal experiences -experience dependent brain development may have been affected based on the deprived conditions of the orphanage |
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Fine Motor vs. Gross Motor Skills |
Fine Motor: involve the development and coordination of small muscles (ex: those that move the eyes and the fingers) Gross Motor: involve the large muscles of the body that make locomotion possible |
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What is the fine motor skill "pre-reaching?" |
this is a reflex like motion when young infants reach for an object moving in front of them (by the time an infant is 5 months they can realize when an object is beyond their reach) |
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When do fine motor skills become better coordinated? |
between 7-12 months of age |
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What is "locomotion" in gross motor skills? |
the ability to move around on one's own (occurs toward the end of the first year) |
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What did Joseph Campos find in his creeping and crawling study? |
by about 8 months of age most infants can crawl on flat smooth surfaces with some skill, the onset of crawling allows babies to explore their environment in a new way and acquire new information about how they respond to the world -infants are not afraid to cross over the deep side until they have had a certain amount of experience trying to crawl on their own -in addition to their reluctance to cross the cliff, wariness of heights (which occurs between 7-9 months) infants look to their mothers for cues about what to do (social referencing) |
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Karen Adolph's Social Referencing What did she find in her walking study? |
social referencing: refers to infants' tendency to look to their caregiver for an indication of how to feel and act in unfamiliar circumstances Adolph found that babies refused to walk when the slope was steep and dangerous even when their mother encouraged walking. Researchers concluded that when social signals from the caregiver conflict with the baby's own assessment of risk, the latter generally wins. |
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Describe the Cognitive Development Debate Side 1 |
Piaget believes that the mind undergoes a radical discontinuous shift at the end of infancy. According to Piaget young infants are limited to sensorimotor intelligence which means they understand the world only through their own actions and perceptions -this changes by 18 months of age when infants become capable of representational thinking (forming mental pictures) -infants are holding in their mind past experiences and using them to guide future actions *developmentalists who agree with this believe that the ability to represent the world mentally results in a mind that is conceptual rather than simply sensorimotor |
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Describe the Cognitive Development Debate Side 2: |
-these developmentalists believe that mental development is more continuous, young babies are believed to possess at least a rudimentary conceptual system |
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Substage 3 of Piaget's Sensorimotor Development: |
Substage 3: Reproducing Interesting Events -4 to 8 month olds begin to direct their attention and actions to the external world -secondary circular reaction: causes the repetition of actions that produce interesting changes in the environment (ex: when babies realize squeezing a toy produces a reaction they are more likely to continue squeezing it) |
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Substage 4: |
Substage 4: The Emergence of Intentionality -occurs between 8-12 months of age -coordination of secondary circular reactions (combining schemas to achieve a desired effect) -engaging in behaviors directed toward achieving a goal -infants lack object permanence "out of sight is out of mind" ex: baby looks for hidden objects, or makes deliberate cries to get attention |
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Substage 5: |
Substage 5: Exploring by Experimenting -emerges between 12-18 months -tertiary circular reactions: deliberate variation of action sequences to solve problems and explore the world ex: discovering the properties of play dough, using new techniques to be successful in putting shapes through appropriate slots |
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Substage 6: |
Substage 6: Representation -between 18-24 months of age -beginning of symbolic representation: images and words come to stand for familiar objects -once babies are capable of representation (when they can present information to themselves again mentally) they begin to engage in symbolic play (when one object stands for or represents another) deferred imitation: the imitation of an action observed in the past ex: pretends to be mother or father in house play
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What was Piaget's A not B error? |
When the infant looks for the hidden object in location A where the infant had previously found the object instead of looking at location B where the infant had just observed its been hidden ex: a baby watches a toy train go into a tunnel. When the train disappears in the tunnel, the child's eyes will remain fixed on the tunnel's entrance rather than following the train's expected progress through the tunnel. When the train reappears it take the child a few seconds to catch up with it visually and the child shows no surprise when it is a different color or shape |
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What do other developmentalists think about the A not B error? |
-Diamond believes the A not B error could be due to the role of memory, maybe children do not simply remember where the object has been hidden -maybe they are using motor preservation which means they repeat a movement rather than modify it to fit a new event |
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What does Baillargeon’s theory of “violation of expectation method” tell us? |
-a test of mental representation when a child is habituated to an event...the infants looked longer at an impossible event than the possible event which shows that they form mental representations of their past experiences with habituation events |
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What does Piaget believe about reasoning of objects? |
He believes that even when children become aware of the physical properties of objects, they cannot reason about those objects (ex: they struggle with categorizing them or counting them) |
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What do Leslie and Colleagues argue about the categorization of objects? |
they believe that young infants form categories on the basis of specific object features or parts but at around 10 months they become capable of processing the relation among features |
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What are the 4 distinct phases involved with developing attention and infants' heart rates |
phase 1: Stimulus Detection Reflex -signals the initial awareness of change in the environment, slowing and then quickening of the heart rate) phase 2: Stimulus Orienting -babies attention becomes fixed on the stimulus (heart rate slows considerably) phase 3: Sustained Attention -heart rate remains slow as the baby cognitively processes the stimulus (baby is truly paying attention) phase 4: attention termination -the baby is still looking at the object but is no longer processing its information (heart rate returns to pre stimulus level) |
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When does the infants memory increase rapidly? |
during the first year of life |
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Forgotten memories can be reactivated but what is this limited by? |
the infant's age |
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Implicit vs. Explicit memory |
babies memory moves from relying on implicit memory (allowing them to recognize what they have experienced before) and moves to explicit memory (allowing them to recall absent objects and events without any clear reminder) |
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The complexities of emotion are defined in terms of: |
a physiological aspect: emotions are accompanied by identifiable physiological reactions (heart rate, breathing, hormonal functioning) a communicative function: emotions communicate our internal feeling states to others (facial expressions, vocalizations, other forms of behavior) a cognitive aspect: emotions we feel depend on how we appraise what is happening to us an action aspect: emotions are a source of action |
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Emotion |
A feeling state that involves distinctive physiological responses and cognitive evaluations that motivate action |
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Emotion Regulation |
how people act to modulate and control their emotions |
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What are the 2 sides of the theories of emotional development? |
1. One controversy concerns whether infants’ emotions are from early on similar to those of adults or if they become adult like over time 2. The second controversy concerns the source of new emotions → do new emotions emerge from negative feeling states or do they emerge at specific periods of development? |
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Theory of Gradual Differentation |
infants are born with the capacity to express only general emotional reactions that are simply positive or negative -discontinuity of emotional expression |
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Differential Emotions Theory |
basic emotions are biologically innate and present at birth in essentially adultlike form |
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Emotions as ontogenetic adaptations |
meaning that they have evolved because they contribute to infants’ survival and development (example: the changing nature of smiling) |
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Primary Intersubjectivity |
organized, reciprocal interaction between an infant and caregiver with the interaction itself as the focus |
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How have developmentalists manipulated the synchrony of social interaction (2 ways) |
1) still face method: after a few minutes of normal synchronous interaction with her infant, the mother is cued to pose a neutral “still face” and to stop responding to the baby. 2) delayed transmission: a method that involves the use of TV monitors, the mother and baby interact naturally and synchronously but they are seeing and hearing each other on the monitors (the experimenters make transmissions from the mother's monitors run several seconds behind the baby's so that her responses are out of sync) → in both instances babies as young as 2 months of age react to the loss of synchrony by averting their gaze and ceasing to smile, they also become agitated and fussy |
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Maternal Depression |
→ mothers who suffer from depression may be less sensitive to the infant's’ emotional cues → in the still face procedure infants of depressed mothers act quite differently than do those of nondepressed mothers, they will avert their gaze but they do not fuss and protest, researchers believe this is because they have learned over time to disengage from stressful/unresponsive interactions with their mother |
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Attachment |
the emotional bond that children form with their caregivers at about 7-9 months of age |
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4 signs of attachment |
1) they seek to be near their primary caregivers 2) they show distress if separated from their caregivers 3) they are happy when they are reunited with the person to whom they are attached 4) they orient their actions to the caregiver |
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Freud's Drive Reduction Explanation |
-humans have biological drives: the impulses of organisms to satisfy essential physiological needs, such as hunger or thirst, that creates tension and a state of arousal in the organism -ex: the wire monkey study: showed that even though the wired monkey fed the baby monkeys they still had a strong preference for the cloth monkey (bodily contact has immediate comfort) |
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John Bowlby’s Ethological Explanation |
-studied children who had been separated from their families during WWII, when children are first separated from their mothers they become frantic with fear and then go through a stage of despair and depression which leads to detachment - ex: when the baby monkeys were shown the scary teddy bear they also clinged to their terry cloth monkey regardless of the other monkey feeding them (the sense of security is more important than the attachment to food) |
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Bowlby’s Phases of Attachment: |
1) the preattachment phase (birth-age 6 weeks): infants remain in close contact with their caregivers and do not seem to get upset when left alone with an unfamiliar caregiver 2) “attachment in the making” phase (6 weeks to 6-8 months): infants begin to respond differently to familiar and unfamiliar people, and by the time they are 6 or 7 months old they start to show clear preferences for their familiar caregivers and signs of wariness when confronted with unfamiliarities 3) “clear-cut attachment” phase (between ages 6 to 8 months and 18 to 24 months): the mother becomes a secure base from which babies make exploratory excursions and they come back every so often to renew contact. This is also the time when children display separation anxiety→ secure base: people whose presence provides the child with the security that allows them to make exploratory excursions→ separation anxiety: the distress that babies show when the person to whom they are attached leaves 4) the reciprocal relationship phase (ages 18-24 months and older): as the child becomes more mobile and spends increasingly greater amounts of time away from the mother, the pair enter into a reciprocal relationship, sharing responsibility for maintaining the equilibrium of the attachment system. When engaged in separate activities, the mother and the child will occasionally interrupt what they are doing to renew their contact. -Bowlby believed that parent child attachment begins to serve as an internal working model: a mental model that children construct as a result of their experiences and they use to guide their interactions with their caregivers and others |
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What did Mary Ainsworth's Strange Situation Model tell us? |
1) Secure attachment: children play comfortably and react positively to a stranger as long as their mother is present. They become upset when their mother leaves and are unlikely to be consoled by a stranger, but calm down when the mother reappears 2) Avoidant attachment: infants are indifferent to where their mother is sitting, may or may not cry when their mother leaves, are as likely to be comforted by strangers as their mother, and are indifferent when their mother returns to the room 3) Resistant attachment: infants stay close to their mother and appear anxious even when their mother is near. They become very upset when their mother leaves but are not comforted by their return. They seek renewed contact with their mother and resist their mother’s efforts to comfort them. 4) disorganized attachment: the insecure attachment pattern in which infants seem to lack a coherent method for dealing with stress. They may scream for their mother, but move away when she approaches. |
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Causes of Variation in Patterns of Attachment: |
The Family Context → Ainsworth found that 3 month olds whose mothers responded quickly and appropriately to their cries and were sensitive to their signals of need were likely to be evaluated as securely attached at 1 year of age Out of Home Care → firstborn children who were placed in a childcare before their first birthday were more likely to display insecure forms of attachment when they were 12-13 months old than were children who stayed at home with their mothers Orphanages→ children who spend their early lives in orphanages may experience significant levels of social emotional deprivation that impede their ability of forming loving relationships with others |
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What events can have a profound effect on child development? |
-loss of a parent -divorce -life threatening illness of a parent or child -parent disorder -physical or sexual abuse |
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Secondary intersubjectivity |
the infant and the caregiver communicate with each other about the world that extends beyond themselves (ex: the pleasure they experience when seeing a passing puppy) |
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Perceptual scaffolding |
the way in which a familiar word serves as an anchor for learning new words that come immediately before or after it |
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Babbling |
a form of vocalizing that combines a consonant and vowel sound -Research showed that in the case of totally deaf infants, if the caregivers communicate with each other in sign language then these infants babble with their hands |
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Sense of self |
By the age of 6 months, infants have developed a sense of themselves infants ability to recognize themselves in a mirror emerges gradually and is clearly evident at around 18 months |
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Self recognition |
At about 3 months of age babies began to engage in cooing at smiling at their images |
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Self as agent |
children’s ability to assert themselves as agents who exert control and power over their environments |
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Self conscious emotions |
emotions such as embarrassment, shame, and guilt which emerge after 8 months with infants’ growing consciousness of self → they think about themselves in relation to other people |
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What two stages did Erikson divide infancy into? |
1) basic trust versus mistrust → the infant determines whether the world is a safe place to explore and discover or an unpredictable and threatening one (warm and responsive parenting fosters infants’ development of trust) 2) autonomy versus shame and doubt → babies develop a sense of themselves as competent or not competent to solve problems and accomplish tasks (babies develop confidence when parents structure their environments in ways that foster success early, but when parents are overly controlling this creates a sense of doubt) |
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The Progress of Language Development: |
→ Birth: Phoneme perception, discrimination of language from non language sounds, crying → 3 months: Cooing → 6 months: babbling, loss of ability to discriminate between nonnative phonemes → 9 months: first words → 12 months: use of words to attract adults’ attention → 18 months: vocabulary spurt, first two word sentences → 24 months: correct responses to indirect requests → 30 months: creation of indirect requests, modification of speech to take listener into account, early awareness of grammatical categories |
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What was significant about the case of Genie? |
Genie was locked up in total isolation and her father used to growl at her and scratch her with his fingernails, she could not make intelligible sounds, walk normally, chew solid food, or express emotions appropriately → this case shows how participation in a normal social environment is essential to the process of language acquisition → Genie was denied both language models and communication opportunities during the years children acquire language and these deprivations contributed to her inability to develop normal language |
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Infant directed speech |
speech characterized by a high pitched voice with exaggerated shifts in intonation (a simplified vocabulary) and an emphasis on the boundaries between meaningful parts of an utterance all of which help to highlight what the adult wants to communicate |
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Phonological development |
learning to segment speech into meaningful units of sounds |
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Semantic development |
learning meanings of words and of combinations of words |
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Pragmatic development |
the process of learning the social and cultural conventions that govern how language is used in particular contexts |
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overextension vs. under extension |
→ overextension: a form of mislabeling in which children use a word to refer to a broader group of objects than the word usually refers to (ex: calling everyone who looks like their dad "daddy") → under extension: children use words in a narrower way than they are usually meant (thinking "bottle" only refers to their favorite bottle) |
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Fast mapping |
the way in which children quickly form an idea of the meaning of an unfamiliar word they hear in a familiar and highly structured social interaction → some researchers argue this happens in toddlerhood and not before because a tipping point occurs once children have achieved a vocabulary of 50-75 words → other researchers argue fast mapping occurs because toddlers have an increased ability to use social cues to infer a speaker’s intentions |
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Biological Explanation of Language Acquisiton |
According to Chomsky the fact that children acquire language quickly and effortlessly without any direct instruction and that they produce a vast array of sentences that they have never before heard makes it impossible to claim that language could be acquired primarily through learning mechanisms (rather, language is innate and develops through a universal process of maturation) → learning happens when the child is placed into the appropriate environment Language acquisition device → Chomsky’s term for an innate language processing capacity that is programmed to recognize the universal rules that underlie any particular language that a child might hear |
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Social and Cultural Explanations of Language Acquisition: |
→ children acquire language in the process of using it in a particular sociocultural environment → formats: socially patterned activities in which adult and child do things together → language acquisition support system: Bruner’s term for the patterned behaviors and formatted events within which children acquire language |
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Cognitive Approaches of Language Acquisition: |
→ Gopnik and Meltzoff suggest that changes in the way children use language arise as a consequence of the kind of cognitive developments described by Piaget → collective monologues: communications in which young children each voice their own thoughts without attending to what the others are saying → true dialogue: a communication in which each person’s utterances take into the count the utterances of others → Vygotsky believed that egocentric speech never truly disappears but instead it turns into inner speech (inner speech: the internalization of egocentric speech that occurs during early childhood and allows individuals to mentally plan activities and solve problems) |
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William’s syndrome |
unlike with Down’s Syndrome, even though language acquisition is delayed, many children can still produce grammatical sentences that are clearly pronounced and understandable even children who have some form of genetic disease may be capable of developing some sort of language competence |
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False Beliefs |
Elizabeth Loztus: process of false memories a child thinks that thoughts in your head are public knowledge ex: the kid thought there was juice in the juice box but it was string, when asked what he first thought was in the box he kept saying string --around 4-5 they start to gain the knowledge of other people's thoughts |
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What does Zelago tell us about categorization? |
Kids focus on one thing first and they can't change this thinking ex: the child put the red boar in the category of the boat was blue, he couldn't understand that the boat belonged in another category |
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Theory Theory |
we are pre wired to create theories about the way things work (this is why kids constantly ask "why") |
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Piaget's cultural scripts |
kids put things together to form a script ex: knowing it is time to eat when you see the bottle --start creating expectations --cultural scripts are how we see our cognitive understandings of the world |
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Albert Bandura believes that learning from observation depends on: |
availability of behavior attention to the model memory limitations motor reproduction motivation |
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Who's the best person in the world? |
DIAMOND |
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Mirror Neurons |
specialized brain cells that fire when an individual sees or hears another perform an action just as they would fire if the observing individual were performing the same action |
