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96 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Forms that carbon exists in |
Gas Liquid Solid Biotic (Living) Abiotic (non-living) |
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The Past of Carbon |
As time progressed (3bn yrs) bit by bit through photosynthesis primitive bacteria converted the CO2 they absorbed into oxygen allowing more complex organisms to develop 2bn yrs - CO2 dissolved in oceans and stored in sedimentary rocks This then accelerated when land based ecosystems developed |
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The Present of Carbon |
Carbon Cycle balance existing now created 290mil years at the time of carboniferous tropical rainforest period. However since 1800 this has been impacted by man through Deforestation Burning fossil fuels |
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Geological carbon Cycle |
Concentrated on carbon stored in rocks and sediments Organic matter buried on protected from decay and can take millions of years to turn into fossil fuels |
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Fast carbon Cycle |
Rather than reservoir turnovers such as sea floors there are more rapid rates which can take a few years to millenia. Carbon is sequestered in flows between the atmosphere, oceans, ocean sediment and on land in vegetation soil and freshwater |
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Processes of Carbon |
Erupting volcano Burning fossil fuels,forests Decomposition of plants Photosynthesis Respiration Weathering and erosion Rock cycle |
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Carbon stores |
Soil and organic carbon Plants and food webs Phytoplankton Ocean surface Deep ocean currents and sediments Shellfish and coral Sedimentary rocks Coal oil and gas |
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Oceans |
Greatest store of Carbon 50 times greater than atmosphere 93% of all CO2 in undersea algae plants and coral remainder in a dissolved form so small changes in carbon cycling in the ocean can have significant impacts |
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Carbon Fluxes |
Fluxes are exchanges or pathways The CO2 exchange flux between oceans and atmosphere operate over several hundred years Other significant fluxes are continental river run off for organic carbon as well as dissolved carbon |
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3 key processes or carbon Cycle pumps |
Biological pump Carbonate Pump Physical pump These processes operate in oceans to circulate and store carbon |
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Biological pump |
ORGANIC sequestration of CO2 to oceans via Phytoplankton Basis of the food chain carbon passed up the chain by larger fish which in turn release CO2 to the water and atmosphere. Most is recycled in surface waters whilst 0.1% decomposes to sediment Phytoplankton sequester over 2 Billion tonnes of CO2 annually |
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Carbonate Pump |
Relies on INORGANIC carbon sedimentation When organisms die and sink many shells dissolve before reaching the ocean floor becoming part of the ocean currents. They eventually end up on the sea floor forming calcium carbonate (limestone) sediments |
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Physical Pump |
CO2 is mixed much slower in the oceans than in the atmosphere. Colder water Absorbs more CO2 warmer waters release CO2 As major ocean currents such as the North Atlantic Drift (gulf stream) moves water from the tropics to the poles, the water cools and can absorb more CO2. High latitude Arctic oceans are deeper and cooler water sinks because it is a higher density taking the CO2 with it |
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Thermohaline Circulation |
Is vital to global ocean nutrient and CO2 cycles It takes 1000yrs for water to travel round the system Warm surface waters are depleted or nutrients and CO2 but it is replenished as they travel through the deep ocean layers and back again |
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Terrestrial Sequestration |
This is the organic carbon Cycle on land and shortest in scale secs/yrs Carbon trapped in autotrophs (producers) gets transferred to heterotrophs (consumers) as one organism Eats another Easiest to show this using a food chain or web |
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How does energy move through an ecosystem |
Globally most productive biomes are tropical rainforest, savannahs and grassland accounting for over half of Net primary productivity Storage is mainly in plants and soils followed by animals then bacteria. Largest stores are in trees due to long lifespans |
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Net primary productivity |
Net amount of primary production after the costs of plant Respiration ate included |
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Comparison of different biomes: Tropical Rainforest |
Largest organic stores on earth Amazon covers 5.3sqkm Sequesters 17% of all terrestrial carbon |
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Comparisons of different biomes: Wetlands and Peatlands |
Wetlands contain peat another important organic store Many formed during holocene era and has been stored 1000s of years With climate change and exploitation they are now becoming net carbon sources |
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What influences the capacity of soil to store carbon |
Climate: dictates plant growth and Decomposition rates Soil Type: Clay soils have better carbon content and protect from Decomposition Management and use if soil: Since 1850 90bn tonnes if carbon lost by soil through cultivation and disturbance |
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Why is a balanced carbon Cycle important in maintaining other systems |
It plays a key role regulating temperature which is turn impacts the hydrological cycle and therefore ecosystem development |
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Greenhouse effect |
Incoming radiation from the sun most of which is radiated back to Space. Some of this is absorbed by greenhouse gases and some is returned back to earth |
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How do humans impact on the carbon Cycle |
Burning fossil fuels Deforestation Farming |
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Importance of Carbon in a balanced carbon Cycle |
Carbon is necessary for biosynthesis on land and in the sea Whole world relies on photosynthesis which is balanced by the process of Respiration Over geological time the amount of oxygen in the atmosphere increased CO2 released by Weathering of sedimentary rocks and water vapour |
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Importance of Soil health in the carbon Cycle |
Soil health influenced by stored carbon important for ecosystem productivity |
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Effects of the industrial revolution on the carbon Cycle |
Before the industrial revolution the fluxes of exchange were balanced However since then humans have massively increased the amount of Carbon in the atmosphere |
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How much carbon have fossil fuels and deforestation |
Fossil fuels have added 375 Petagrams of Carbon Deforestation 180 Petagrams |
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How has the carbon Cycle absorbed the increase CO2 as a result of fossil fuels and deforestation |
240PCG into atmosphere 155PCG into oceans 160PCG into terrestrial ecosystems |
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What factors affect energy consumption |
Energy availability Affordability Cultural Preferences |
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What are the sources of demand for energy |
Domestic Heating Electricity Transportation Industry Farming |
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What factors affect energy security |
Physical eg Exhaustion of supplies Environmental eg Protests of destruction Economic eg Sudden rise in cost Geopolitical eg Instability |
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Energy Security Index (ESI) |
Measures energy security using Calculations based in degrees of risk from information of Availability - Amount and longevity of supplies Diversity - Range of energy sources Intensity - Degree of Economic dependency on oil and gas |
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Levels of risk with the energy security index (ESI) |
Extreme risk ESI value of less than 2.5 (N Africa, S Korea) High risk ESI value 2.5 to 5 (Japan and USA) Medium risk ESI value 5 to 7 (SE Asia Europe, Australasia) Low risk ESI value more than 7.5 (Canada,Russia,Norway other exporters of oil and gas such as middle east) |
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Impacts of energy security |
Energy Pathways Economic and political risks if supplies are disrupted Greater exploration of technically difficult and environmentally sensitive areas Price |
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Characteristics of risk with energy security |
Heavy importers of oil and gas Countries with substantial reserves show levels of risk Medium sized developed countries show medium risk due to diversity of energy sources Low level risk in Africa due to low levels of consumption USA has higher risk due to huge consumption which overshadows its reserves and range of sources |
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Risks to disruption of energy sources |
Extreme demand Oil Crisis 1973 Energy Infrastructure Terrorism and it's effects on supply Sudden price changes Instability of exporter |
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Global Uncertainty which could influence energy supply |
Future performance of global economy. Emerging economies demand Contribution of unconventional oil sources Scale of population growth Impact if rising living standards Scale of switch to renewable Size of undiscovered reserves Discovery of new energy technologies |
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What are potential responses to increasing demand for energy |
Business as Usual Multi energy solution Energy Conservation |
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What is primary and secondary energy |
Primary is raw materials such as coal, oil etc Secondary is energy that can be used eg electricity, heat, kinetic etc |
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What issues do fossil fuels have with their use |
Foreign supply sources (USA gets from 70 different countries) Pollution such as carbon dioxide and nitrogen oxides Environmental degradation during extraction |
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UK energy Mix 2015 |
Coal then Gas then Nuclear then renewables then other |
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Why may energy security issues for the UK increase |
Domestic gas and oil production peaked Nuclear power plants are being decommissioned Demand is rising Large UK coal reserves are a pollution energy source Increased reliance on imported gas raises risks if supply is disrupted |
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OPEC and the 1973 price hike |
Organisation for Petroleum Exporting Countries put a 2000 increased tax on fuel effectively tripling it's price overnight British companies no longer competitive in Europe OPEC blockaded oil and so almost all ran out in the UK and in parts of America eg no one could get petrol |
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Pressing environmental concerns |
Energy use is strongly linked to global warming Rising carbon footprints warrant switching to renewable resources Developing alternate sources require investment in new technology These cannot be afforded by all |
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Trade in Gas |
2nd biggest electricity producer Far less pollutants than oil/coal Demand increase by 3.7% per yr Production increased Russia and US biggest reserves in middle east 21% global energy Mix |
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Trade in Coal |
Laid foundations for industrial Rev Most of Europe exploited coal ad did the USA and Japan Has gone into decline since 1950s due to its pollution Still significant in Easter Europe |
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Reasons for decline of coal use in the UK |
Easily accessible coal declined Most deep coal contain impurities Labour costs to High Govt Policy (Thatcher) wound down coal industry in 80s and 90s |
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Oil energy pathways |
Middle East exports 15000 barrels per day mainly to Japan Eu and China Substantial amounts flow from Africa Canada and S America to the USA Russia supplies some oil to China but mainly Europe |
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Gas Energy Pathways |
Transported through pipelines such as Russia to Europe and they are creating another to supply China and Japan |
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Case study Gazprom and EU gas supply problem (Ukraine): What started the crisis |
Russia already hate Ukraine since 2004 when a Moscow enemy took power and also when they tried to join NATO Russia cut gas supplies to Ukraine new years day only pumping enough for countries further down the line They faced negotiations on the renewal of gas supplies but failed to agree on a price Also claims Ukraine had stolen gas but they claimed to already have paid for it |
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Case study Gazprom- Russia and Ukraine: Nabucco Pipeline |
Proposed pipeline suggested to avoid reliance on Russian gas Cancelled due to infighting in Eu, costs and Russias power over the buyers |
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Types of unconventional fossil fuels |
Oil Shale - Sedimentary rock containing oil Shale Gas - sedimentary rock contains gas Tar sand - Compound containing Bitumen sand and water |
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Case study Tar Sands in Alberta Canada |
Alberta has huge Tar Sands est 174.5bn barrels Huge deposits if Bitumen turned into oil using hugely damaging processes They pollute rivers and convert Farmland into wasteland Large areas of Boreal forest cut to make way for development |
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Cost of different sources of oil (per barrel) |
Offshore middle east 27 dollars Offshore shelf 41 dollars Heavy oil 47 dollars Onshore Russia 50 dollars Onshore rest of world 51 dollars Deep water 52 dollars Ultra deep water 56 dollars Shale 65 dollars Oil Sands 70 dollars Arctic 75 dollars |
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Health environmental and climate impacts of Tar Sands extraction |
Worst oik pollution for climate and environment 3 times more than regular oil Leads to respiratory sickness,cancer Huge areas of land destroyed In order to extract 1 barrel oil requires 3 barrels of water 90% of this ends up as toxic waste |
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Costs of extracting oil shale |
Heat used to extract giving a much larger carbon footprint Large amounts of water used 4 barrels which becomes polluted Shale has to be disposed of after oil is extracted |
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Case study deep water oil - Brazil |
With the aid of China Brazils state oil company Petronas began drilling for deep water oil in 2006 880000 barrels a day Drilling is difficult with flammable gases and rock salt layers meaning costs are high |
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Case study Deep water oil - Brazil: Complications |
At present only 13% of Brazils electricity is fossil fuels Oil would help diversify energy Mix and create jobs and money from exports However lower global oil prices put Petrobas 100bn in debt Also high costs, corruption and job losses have caused social disharmony |
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What are the 2 types of alternatives to fossil fuels |
Renewables and Recyclables |
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Examples of Renewable energies |
Solar Wind Hep Ocean energy Geothermal |
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Examples of Recyclables energies |
Nuclear Biofuels |
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Issues with Nuclear Power |
Power plant accidents eg Chernobyl 1986, Fuchishima 2011 Waste storage and disposal Rogue state or terrorist use if nuclear fuel for weapons Cancer risk |
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Countries use of nuclear power |
USA uses 1/4 of world total 20% of their power France gets 78% from nuclear China and India want to increase their use of nuclear |
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Wind Energy Notable countries |
China 91,324MW 2% overall power USA 61,108MW 3.5% overall power Spain 22,959MW 17.5% overall Denmark 4772MW 30% overall |
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Case Study: Biofuels in Brazil |
Sugar cane grown in Brazil used for Ethanol which most vehicles run on producing 930k barrels per day 1.34m direct jobs 16% domestic energy Now more efficient isn't linked to deforestation and exports to USA and S Korea |
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Hydropower HEP |
Generated from moving eater using dams Mostly generated in Canada Brazil China and US 44% global 15 territories don't use HEP |
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What was the Severn Barrage |
Dam across the river Severn which would have been the 2nd largest tidal range in the world Could have provided the energy equivalent of 4 power stations However it wasn't approved due to environmental concerns |
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How can different environments be used for different renewable energies |
Deserts - Massive solar energy Coasts - HEP and Tidal energy Geothermal - ring of fire Mountainous - Hydropower Subtropical regions - Large resource of bioenergy |
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What is stopping us with the switch to renewables |
Efficient deployment of Renewable resources requires removal of trade barriers between countries It requires countries with an energy surplus to change ideology The goal is the interconnection of regions with abundant resources to the nations with highest consumption |
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4 radical technologies |
Hydrogen fuel cells Electric vehicles Carbon capture and storage Nuclear Fusion |
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Hydrogen fuel cells |
Could replace gas and petrol Burnt to produce heat of used in fuel cells to presidency electricity Only by product is water More efficient than petrol |
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Problems with hydrogen fuel cells |
Hydrogen is not found in its pure form and has to be separated from water, natural gas etc This requires large amounts of energy and GHGs Hydrogen is an energy carrier and so needs to withstand impacts or can be dangerous / explodey |
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Problems with electric vehicles |
Short distance they can travel Infrastructure needs to develop in terms of charging points |
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3 Types of Carbon Capture and storage |
Post combustion Pre combustion Oxyfuel |
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Carbon capture and storage |
Capturing and burying CO2 to stop it getting into the atmosphere Schwarze pump in Germany Once it is captured it needs to be liquefied transported and buried in underground sites or used oil fields. Can also be used by pumping CO2 into an active oil field to force out difficult to extract oil |
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2014 IPCC report |
Recognised uncertain availability of the tech but does see it as important limiting climate change Power generation without Ccs must be phased out by 2100 However it could extend the use of fossil fuels and leakage is also a concern as it could impact human health |
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Nuclear Fusion |
Where 2 atomic nuclei combine making a larger one and releasing a lot of energy Clean with no GHGs can use common elements Long way from reality Also hugely expensive research alone cost China Germany and others 1.6bn |
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Nanotechnology |
Manipulation of matter on an atomic or molecular scale May help with solar fuels using sunlight on simple substances for artificial photosynthesis An example of this is splitting water to make hydrogen Russia heavily involved in the development of nanomachines |
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Appropriate energy types on a small scale |
Solar energy cookers Solar water heating Solar water purification Micro HEP schemes |
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Case study Droughts in Amazonia |
Droughts and floods affect amazon Since 1912 Droughts every 10 years Mega drought in 2005 70 million hectares of land affected |
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Case study Droughts in Amazonia: Impacted areas |
Half the area affected struggled to recover for several years worsening drought in 2010 During drought trees absorb less co2 Photosynthesis reduced CO2 also increased due to first fires and Decomposition Potentially the Amazon may not act as a carbon sink in the future |
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Case study Droughts in Amazonia: Climate Models |
Predicts similar events to 2005 Based on Sea temperature increase Enso and blocking anticyclones add to the uncertainty The 14/15 drought caused by one in SE Brazil |
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What are the main threats to forests |
Expansion of agricultural land Infrastructure developments Mining and forest fire Illegal Logging |
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Environmental Kuzsnets curve model |
Model about where countries are in terms of environmental degradation For example Brazil are worsening the environment China have reached a turning point towards sustainability UK are further along this path Costa Rica are already sustainable with their environmental degradation |
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How can removal of forests lead to increased surface run off and what is the effect of this |
Less interception so ground is saturated faster and surface run off is increased Leads to speeding up of the water Cycle Increase in both flood and drought events |
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Methods of Geoengineering |
Spray seawater in the ocean creating white clouds that reflect sunlight Add sulphur particles to atmosphere reflecting suns energy Trillions of wafer thin disks in orbit reducing sun's energy |
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Potential issues of Geoengineering |
May cause weather changes. Albedo effect isn't fully understood May impact on Ozone layer and increase acid rain Very expensive 5trn unpredictable as whole atmosphere heat budget would be changed |
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Mitigation strategies that will rebalance the carbon Cycle |
Carbon taxation Renewable switching Energy Efficency in supply Afforestation Carbon capture and storage |
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Domestic uses of Carbon taxation |
Congestion tolls Vehicle tax Less tax on energy Efficent cars (no tax on cars producing less than 100g/km of CO2 Tax on fuel - accounting for half the cost of the petrol |
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Commercial uses of Carbon taxation |
Carbon taxes on business to encourage energy efficiency Taxes of waste Taxes on fertilisers containing nitrogen Tax relief on certain building techniques and use |
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Renewable switching UK |
UK aims to be 15% renewable by 2020 Windturbines Biomass heat and electricity Renewable transport |
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Why are the UK so far behind in renewable energy to smaller states in Europe |
Other countries have been utilising these energy sources for longer as a main source the UK has been reliant on coal and other sources |
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Afforestation |
Pays forest owners to not cut trees down to reduce emissions from deforestation and forest degradation Tanzania 3500ah of Pine and fruit trees planted on degrading grassland. This alone will remove around 166000 tonnes of CO2 per year |
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Paris agreement 2015 |
195 countries agreed to try to reduce emissions to almost 0 by 2065 Richer nations pledged 100mil by 2020 to help poorer countries adapt and switch to renewables The aim is to reduce temps to 1.5 degrees above Pre industrial levels |
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Problems with the Paris agreement |
Little to force countries to meet the targets and so progress may slow Pressure from within will increase as air pollution and coastal flooding risk grows Many feel the goal is unrealistic Estimated cost 16.5trn by 2030 |
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Effectiveness of 5 mitigation strategies |
Renewables - Good alternative whilst still creating energy Afforestation - could take too long Carbon tax - some countries just won't do it CCS - Directly done or stopped by renewables and Afforestation Energy Efficency - still using the same damaging energy sources |