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93 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
What are the functions of blood? |
- Transportation: O2, nutrients, hormones, waste products
- Regulation of pH and solute composition (like H2O ballance) - Protection - clotting and immune functions - Body temperature - spreading heat from metabolic functions |
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What are typical values for blood pH and temperature, blood volume and hematocrit?
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pH - 7.38; range: 7.35-7.45
Temp - 38C/100.4 F Volume - 5-6 L in man; 4-5 L in woman Hematocrit - 45% of RBCs in total blood volume |
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Blood is classified as what type of tissue?
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- Connective tissue
- Plasma = fluid extracellular matrix - RBCs etc = cells |
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What part of the blood is the non-living matrix?
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- the plasma: a fluid matrix
- only fluid matrix out of all connective tissues |
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Describe the composition of whole blood.
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Plasma: 55% of volume
Formed elements: 45%; leucocytes, platelets, erythrocytes/rbcs |
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Describe the composition of plasma.
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- 92% H2O
- 8% solutes (mostly plasma proteins too big to get out of capillaries) Plasma proteins = albumins, globulins, clotting proteins |
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What is the primary component of plasma?
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- H2O - 92% of plasma volume
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Identify the main types of plasma proteins and describe the general functions of each.
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Albumins - 60%; angiotensin; major contributer to osmotic press., important buffer; transport (TH, steroid hormone, fatty acids)
Globulins - 35%; transport globulins (carry vitamins, metal ions, lipoproteins); immunoglobulin (antibodies) Clotting proteins - 5%; fibrinogen, prothrombin |
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What is the most numerous type of blood cell?
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- Erythrocytes/rbcs
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In adults,where are the formed elements of the blood produced?
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- red bone marrow in certain bones (mostly flat bones... like hip, sternum etc?)
- also liver and spllen and lymph nodes |
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Describe the structure and function of mature erythrocytes (rbcs).
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Structure: flexible (so they can fit through tight capillaries); biconcave disk shape from lack of nucleus (lots of surface area, diffusion distances in cell very short), anuclearte
Function: transport O2 and CO2 |
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Describe the molecular structure of hemoglobin (Hb).
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- binds reversibly to O2 and CO2
- made up of polypeptide subunits:two alapha and two beta chains Each chain: globular part and heme part Iron at center of heme groups Hb can carry 4 O2 molecules (saturated) |
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How does adult Hb differ from fetal Hb?
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- fetal Hb has gamma instead of beta globins
- gamma has a higher affinity for oxygen - this helps the baby get it's oxygen from the mother's blood - gradually gamma is replaced with beta |
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What is the typical lifespan of RBCs?
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80-120 days
- short b/c of all of the physical stress |
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Where are worn out/damaged RBCs removed from the blood and broken down?
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- removed from circulation by macrophages in liver and spleen
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What type of cell removes worn out/damages RBCs from the blood?
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Macrophages - their phagolysosome breaks it down
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Describe the Hb breakdown products and tell how they are handled.
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Globin:
- Amino acids - rejoin amino acid bool Heme: - ferritin - can cause oxidative damage; stored in liver and spleen; attatched to transferrin for transport; recycled back to bone marrow through blood - Biliverdin - reuced to bilirubin, released in circulation; bound to albumin in liver and secreted into bilie; changed to urobilinogen by bacteria in intestines; some released back into blood and secreted by kidney in urine, most owidized to stercobilin and excreted in feces |
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Name the hormone that stimulates RBC production. What organ releases this hormone?
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- erythropoietin (EPO)
- produced by kidneys |
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Describe the negative feedback regulation of erythropoiesis.
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- Increase in hypoxia (not enough O2 to tissues)
- Increase in EPO by kidneys - Increase in rbc production in bone marrow - Increase in O2 circulation - Decrease in hypoxia - Decrease in EPO production |
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At which stage of development does the rbc eject its nucleus?
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Normoblast ejects its nucleus
- becomes a reticulocyte |
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At which stage of development do rbcs leave the bone marrow and enter the circulation?
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- reticulocyte stage
- after 1-2 days become mature rbcs - used as index of rate of erythropoiesis |
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What are the three common causes of anemia?
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Insufficient rbc numbers: from hemmoraging, premature lyising, inhibition of erythropoeisis
- Decreased Hb content of rbcs - from vit B12 or iron deficiency - Abnormal Hb - from halacemia or sicle cell anemia |
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Describe the stages of RBC development from pluripotent stem cell to mature rbc.
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- pleuripotent stem cell/hemocytoblast (multiCSF acts on it)
- becomes myeloid stem cell (instead of a lymphoid stem cell, the other type) - progenetor cells - acted upon by erythropoietin (EPO) to become - Proerythroblast - the 1st stage of being an immature rbc, where path can't change - erythroblast - normoblast - ejects nucleus - reticulocyte - enters circulation - mature rbc |
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Describe how leukocytes (wbcs) use diapedesis, amoeboid motion, and chemotaxis to move around in the body.
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- cells moving in blood
- positive chemotaxis towards conc. - antigens on wbc and mollecules on endothelial walls interact, slowing cell down (rolls along wall and stops) - diapedesis - the cell squeezes b/w the endothelial cells inot the tissues - amoeboid motion - continues positive chemotaxis by swimming towards infection site |
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Identify the two general categories of wbcs and name the specific cells assigned to each category.
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Granulocytes (neutrophils, eodinophils and basophils):
- lobed nuclei, granules in cytoplasm, live appx 12 hrs, release enzymes when activated Agranulocytes (monocytes develop into macrophages, lymphocytes): - sphyrical/oval/kidney shaped nucleus, longer life span |
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Which category of leukocyte has the longest life span?
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Agranulocytes
- granulocytes have short life span b/c they release enzymes, which hurt them as well as the invaders |
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Describe the histological characteristics of each type of wbc.
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Neutrophils - 50-70%; small lilac granules, nucleus w/3-5 lobes
Eosinophils - 1-4%; similar in size to neutrophils; red-orange granules; nucleus w/2 lobes Basophils - <1%; slightly smaller than neutrophils; large purple/black granules; nucleus w/2 lobes Monocytes - 4-8%; largest one; pale blue cytoplasm; kidney-shaped nucleus; becomes macrophage Lymphocytes - 25-35%; round nucleus fills almost whole cell; blue cytoplasm a narrow rim around it |
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Describe the general function of each type of wbc.
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Neutrophils - active phagocyte; chem. attracted to inflamation sites
Eosinophils - defense against parasitic worms; role in allergic rxns Basophils - release histamine at inflammations; release heparin Monocytes - develop into wandering or fixed macrophage; in this form for only 1 day in blood; phagocytic cells; role in lymphocyte activation Lymphocytes - types: T and B lymphocytes; part of immune response |
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List the various types of wbcs in order from most to least numerous.
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Never Let Monkeys Eat Bananas
Neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Basophils |
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Which type of wbc accounts for more than half of all circulating leukocytes?
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Neutrophils
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Which types of wbcs are important phagocytes?
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Neutrophils
Monocytes |
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Which type of wbc releases heparin and histamine?
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Basophils
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Which type of wbc is the largest of all blood cells?
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Monocytes
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Which type of wbc matures in the body tissues to become a macrophage?
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Monocytes
- develops into wandering or fixed macrophage |
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Describe the process of leukopoiesis from pluripotent stem cell to monocyte and mature granulocyte.
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- be able to draw table out (see p34/35 in notes)
- hemocytoblast/pleuripotent stem cell - myloid stem cells - progenator cells splits into 2 difft types: -- Myoblast: to melanocyte: to band cells: to mature granulocytes -- Monoblast: to promonocyte: to mature monocyte |
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Identify the 2 specific families of cytokines that regulate leukopoiesis.
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- Interleukins (ILs)
- Colony stimulating factors (CSFs) |
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Buffy coat
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- wbcs and platelets
- presents at the plasma-erthyrocyte junction in a tube of fractionated blood |
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oxyhemoglobin
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HbO2 - oxygenated hemoglobin
- has bright red color |
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deoxyhemoglobin
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- no O2 attatched
- dark red, giving blood blue appearance |
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transferrin
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- transport protein that carries the iron part of heme from storage in liver/spleen to the bone marrow
- keeps it from causing oxidative damage |
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ferritin
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- the iron part of heme
- can cause oxidative damage - stored in liver/spleen and recycled back to bone marrow; transported by transferrin |
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biliverdin
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- green pigment
- when added to iron, makes heme - reduced to bilirubin... follows pathway and eventually secreted in urine or feces |
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bilirubin
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- orange pigment made from reduction of biliverdin (part of heme)
- released into circulation - circulates to liver where secreted into bile and changed into urobilinogen in intestine |
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urobilinogen
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- part of biliverdin from heme
- made from bilirubin by bacteria in large intestines - back into circulation; excreted by kidneys into urine (yellow) - most oxidized into stercobilin and leaves in feces |
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urobilin
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- urobilinogen excreted by kidneys becomes oxidized into urobilin
- gives urine yellow color |
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stercobilin
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- Urobilinogen oxidizes to stercobilin in large intestines
- gives feces brown color |
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Jaundice
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- yellowish tint
- excessive bilirubin in ect - B/c of: excess rbc destruction or liver damage |
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reticulocyte count
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- used as index of rate of erythropoiesis
- reticulocytes become mature rbcs in 1/2 days whereas rbcs last 3-4 months - normally 1-2% of rbcs |
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hypoxia
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when the tissues don't have enough O2
- causes increased rate of EPO secretion, and then more rbcs to be produced |
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anemia
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reduced O2 carrying capacity of blood
- indicates an underlying problem - symptoms: fatigue, pale, SOB |
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leukopenia
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- too few wbcs - below 5,000/mm cubed
- Normally 5-10 thousand/mm cubed - result of cancer treatment, glucocorticoid treatment, etc |
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leukocytosis
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- too many wbcs - more than 10,000/mm cubed
- Normally 5-10 thousand/mm cubed - indicates: bacterial infection, or transiently in exercise |
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Describe the developments of platelets.
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- pleuripotent cell stimulated by multiCSF
- myeloid stem, then - megakaryoblast - repeats rounds of mitosis w/o cytokinesis, becoming multinucleated - promegakaryocyte - forms gramules - megakaryocyte - cell makes projections, squeezes them through sinusoidal wall, rupture off, producing platelets - platelets |
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What hormone regulates the process of platelet formation?
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thrombopoietin (TPO)
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Identify and describe the three phases of hemostasis.
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- Vascular spasm - damage to vessel triggers local vasoconstriction; more damage = more constriction; caused by factors realeased by platelets and endothelial cells
- Platelet plug formation - platelets adhere to exposed collagen fibers, adhere, activate(changing shape) and aggregate; positive feedback cycle initiated - Coagulation - clotting factors/prostaglandins form prothrombinase, starts a pathway that ends up making interwoven strands of fibrin (the webbing of blood clot) |
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Identify the main chemicals released by activated platelets.
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- ADP
- TXA2 and serotonin - Clotting factors (Ca2+ etc) - PDGF - platelet-derived growth factor |
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What role does each of the main chemicals released by activated platelets play in promoting hemostasis?
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- ADP - stimulates platelet aggregation
- TXA (an ecosinoid) and Serotonin (the NT in the CNS) - enhance vascular spasms - Clotting factors (Ca2+) - PDGF (platelet-derived growth factor) - promotes repair of blood vessel |
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Differentiate between the extrinsic and intrinsic pathways of blood clotting.
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- Both are part of coagulation/clotting
- Both form prothrombinase, an enzyme Extrinsic - involves release of tissue factor from endothelial cells, activates factor 10 Intrinsic - no release from damaged endothelial cells; begins w/activation of procoagulents @ injury site by exposure to collagen fibers; platelets release Platelet Factor 3, activates factor nine, activates factor 10 - Both - Factor 10 activated, complexes w/5 and Ca ions to form prothrombinase |
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What enzyme is formed by both the intrinsic and extrinsic pathways to initiate the common pathway of blood clotting?
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- Prothrombinase - an enzyme
Starts the common pathway that ends with the formation of fibrin, the webbing of the blood clot |
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Describe the steps of the common pathway of the coagulation process.
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- Starts with prothrombinase converting prothrombin to thrombin
- Thrombin (an enz.) converts fibrinogin (a plasma protein) to fibrin - fibrin forms threadlike mollecules; an elastic fillament forms meshwork of the blood clot |
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What is clot retraction?
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- after clot forms
- actin and myosin fibers pull the clot together - squeeze serum out (the plasma minus the clotting proteins) - stabalizes clot |
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What is fibrinolysis?
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- breakdown/dissolving the clot
- activation of plasminogen in the clot to plasmin - Plasmin breaks it down |
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What proteolytic enzyme is involved in fibrinolysis?
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Plasminogen = plasma protein caught in clot
- prokinase (u-PA) and tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA) convert it to plasmin - plasmin is the active enzyme that breaks down clot |
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What factors work to localize and control blood clotting?
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- Prostacyclin (PGI2) - released by endothelial cells - limits platelet aggregation
- wbcs release factors to slow it down - plasma enzymes break ADP down - Anticoagulants: - anti-thrombin, heparin, warfarin/coumadin, asprin |
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The ABO blood groups are distinguished by the presence or absence of what 2 agglutinogens?
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- agglutinogens A and B
- codominant |
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What agglutinogents are present on the RBCs of each of the 4 ABO blood types?
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A - A
B - B AB - both A and B O - neither A nor B |
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What genotypes could account for each of the phenotypes of the 4 ABO blood types?
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A - IAIA or IAi
B - IBIB or IBi AB - IAIB O - ii |
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What agglutinins are present in the blood plasma of each of the 4 ABO blood types?
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= the antibodies against one of the agglutinogents
A - antiB B - antiA AB - neither antiA nor antiB O - antiA and antiB |
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On the basis of ABO blood groups only, identify which donor bloot types are compatible with recipients of each of the 4 ABO blood groups.
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Receptor - possible donors:
A - A or O B - B or O AB - A, B, O O - O |
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When do anti-Rh antibodies form?
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- agglutination/transfusoin reaction doesn't occur w/1st exposure to Rh positive blood
- formed during 1st exposure, next time, the agglutination would occur in the Rh -ve person if exposed to +ve blood a second time |
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blood group
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depends on types Rh agglutinogens
- if you have any of the 8 types = Rh positive; none = Rh negative |
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Blood type
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determined based on presence or absence of agglutinogents A and B
ABO blood typing |
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agglutinogen
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antigents on surface or RBCs
determine blood group |
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agglutinin
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antibodies that circulate in blood and act against RBCs carrying ABO antigents not present on individuel's own rbcs
- production begun slightly after birth |
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agglutination
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- clumping/aggregation of blood cells
- happens when agglutinins of one kind react with agglutinogens of the same kind |
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transfusion reaction
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- when an individual receives a transfusion of mismatched blood
- can block blood flow to parts of body |
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erythroblastosis fetalis
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- mother Rh -ve and foetus Rh+ve
- happens only on second pregnancy/subsequent exposures - when feotus rbcs are attacked by mother's antibodies |
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anticoagulant
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inhibits clotting:
- anti-thrombin - heparin - warfarin/coumadin - asprin |
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fibrinogen
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plasma protein
soluble form, in blood converted to fibrin by thrombin as part of the common pathway fibrin = the webbing of clots |
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prothrombin
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prothrombinase converts it to thrombin
then thrombin converts fibrinogen to fibrin (the webbing of blood clots) |
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serum
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the plasma minus the clotting proteins
squeezed out of the clot during clot retraction |
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urokinase (u-PA)
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- part of fibrinolysis
- produced by kidney - circulates in blood - released by ET cells when thrombin levels rise activates plasminogen and changes it to plasmin which breaks down the clot eventually |
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tissue plasminogen activator
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- role in fibrinolysis
- released by damaged ET cells - activates plasminogen and turns it into plamin (active form that breaks down fibrin) |
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megakaryocyte
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- platelets are anucleate fragments of large megakaryocytes
- lifespan is less than 10 days, even when inactive - makes projections and squeezes them through sinusoidal wall; rupture off = platelets |
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differential cell count
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the proportional representation of each kind of blood cell in a sample of blood
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platelet adhesion
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- platelets adhere to exposed collagen fibers
- the platelets are active, so they change shape and become more sticky (to eachother and to the ET wall) |
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polycythemia
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abnormal increase in circulating RBCs
causes: blood doping or producint too many - leads to increase blood viscosity, increased BP and all of the problems that come with that |
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embolus
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a mass, most commonly a blood clot, that becomes lodged in a blood vessel and obstructs it
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embolism
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blockage of artery: a condition in which an artery is blocked by an embolus, usually a blood clot formed at one place in the circulation and then lodging in another
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thrombus
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blood clot: a blood clot that forms in a blood vessel and remains at the site of formation
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thalassemias
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type of anemia: a hereditary form of anemia, particularly prevalent around the Mediterranean, that is caused by a dysfunction in the synthesis of the red blood pigment hemoglobin
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immunoglobulin
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a protein of animal origin with known antibody activity, synthesized by lymphocytes and plasma cells and found in serum
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polymorphonuclear cell
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A polymorphonuclear leukocyte (PMN), or granulocyte, is a type of white blood cell whose nucleus has several rounded parts referred to as lobes
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