Reading...
Play button
Play button
Use LEFT and RIGHT arrow keys to navigate between flashcards;
Use UP and DOWN arrow keys to flip the card;
H to show hint;
A reads text to speech;
304 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
|
What is dualism?
|
The view that the mind and body are separate but interacting.
|
|
|
What is Monism?
|
The view that the mind is a property of the physical nervous system.
|
|
|
Define Consciousness
|
Refers to self-awareness and the ability to communicate our thoughts, perceptions, feelings and memories.
|
|
|
What do split-brains demonstrate?
|
Split brains demonstrate the disconnection between parts of the brain involved in perception and those involved with verbal behaviour.
|
|
|
What is a callotomy?
|
A split brain operation that involves cutting the corpus callosum to alleviate epileptic seizures.
|
|
|
What is the result of a callotomy?
|
The brain hemispheres operate independently. Information that does not reach the left hemisphere does not enter consciousness; the person cannot verbalise it.
|
|
|
What is Generalization?
|
Generalisation is the deduction of general laws, using results from experiments.
|
|
|
What is Reduction?
|
Reduction is the use of simple phenomena to explain more complicated phenomena.
|
|
|
What did Hippocrates believe the role of the brain was?
|
Hippocrates believed that the brain was the seat of thoughts and emotions.
|
|
|
What did Aristotle believe the role of the brain was?
|
Aristotle believed that the role of the brain was to cool the passions of the heart.
|
|
|
What did Galen believe the role of the brain was?
|
Galen believed that the role of the brain could not be to cool the heart, as it was so far away from the heart.
|
|
|
How did Descartes view human behaviour?
|
Descartes viewed human behaviours in terms of reflexive mechanisms elicited by stimuli in the environment.
|
|
|
Was Descartes a Dualist or a Monist?
|
Descartes was a dualist. He believed that the mind interacted with the physical body throughout the pineal body.
|
|
|
What did Descartes believe of human movement?
|
Descartes thought that movement was caused by hydraulic pressures within the nerves.
|
|
|
What did Galvani prove of human movement?
|
Galvani disproved Descartes by showing that stimulation of isolated nerves would result in muscle contraction even if the muscle and nerve were not attached to the body.
|
|
|
What was Muller's most important contribution to the study of the physiology of behaviour?
|
The Doctorine of Specific Nerve Energies.
|
|
|
What is Doctrine of Specific Nerve Energies?
|
An observation that although all nerves carry the same basic message (an electrical impulse), we perceive the messages of different nerves in different ways.
|
|
|
What is experimental ablation? (used by Flourens)
|
A research method in which the function of a part of the brain is inferred by observing the behaviours an animal can no longer perform after that part is damaged.
|
|
|
What did Broca discover using the principal of experimental ablation?
|
That a portion of the cerebral cortex on the left side of the brain performs functions necessary for speech.
|
|
|
What were Fritsch and Hitzig's main contributions to biological psychology?
|
Fritsch and Hitzig identified the primary motor cortex: a region of the cerebral cortex that activates discrete muscles on the opposite side of the body.
|
|
|
What did Von Helmholtz contribute to biological psychology?
|
- Developed mathematical formula for the conservation of energy
- Invented ophthalmoscope - Developed theory of colour and colour blindness - Measured speed of conduction through nerves. |
|
|
What was Darwin's Theory of Natural Selection?
|
The process by which inherited traits that confer a selective advantage (increase likelihood to live and reproduce) become more prevalent in the population.
|
|
|
What is functionalism?
|
The principal that the best way to understand a biological phenomenon is to try and understand its useful functions for the organism.
|
|
|
What is mutation?
|
Mutation is a change in the genetic information contained the chromosomes of sperms or eggs that join together to form new organisms. (Provides genetic variability.
|
|
|
What is a selective advantage?
|
A result of mutation; a physical change in an organism that allow it to reproduce very successfully.
|
|
|
What is evolution?
|
Evolution is the gradual change in structure and physiology of plants/animals as a result of natural selection.
|
|
|
What are hominids?
|
Hominids are humanlike apes that first appeared in Africa.
|
|
|
What are the four surviving species of hominids?
|
- Humans
- Chimpanzees - Gorillas - Orang-utans |
|
|
What characteristics have humans evolved that allowed them to compete?
|
- Colour vision, upright posture, language abilities
- Larger brains (relative to body weight) that develop after birth. |
|
|
What is neoteny?
|
Neoteny is the slowing of the maturation process to allow more time for growth, an important factor in the development of large brains (human).
|
|
|
What are the benefits of Animal Research?
|
- Benefits humans and other animals
- Progress in vaccine development - Progress in preventing cell death immediately after a stroke |
|
|
What are the main structures of the CNS
|
- Brain
- Spinal Cord |
|
|
What is the peripheral nervous system?
|
The PNS is the part of the nervous system outside the CNS, including the nerves attached to the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
What is a neuron?
|
A neuron is the information processing and information transmitting part of the nervous system.
|
|
|
What is a sensory neuron?
|
A sensory neuron detects changes in the internal or external environment and communicates these changes to the CNS. (e.g. light, auditory, pain)
|
|
|
What is a motor neuron?
|
A motor neuron in the CNS controls muscle contraction and gland secretion.
|
|
|
What is a interneuron?
|
Interneurons are contained entirely within the CNS. They form circuits with nearby neurons and relay information between circuits.
|
|
|
What is a soma?
|
A soma is a neuron cell body, containing the nucleus.
|
|
|
What is a dendrite?
|
Dendrite are branched, tree-like structures attached to the soma. They receive information from terminal buttons of other neurons.
|
|
|
What is an axon?
|
An axon conveys information (action potential) from the soma to the terminal buttons of a neuron.
|
|
|
What is a terminal button?
|
A terminal button is a bud at the end of an axon branch.
|
|
|
What is the role of a terminal button?
|
To send information to other neurons via neurotransmitters being sent across the synapse.
|
|
|
What is a neurotransmitter?
|
Neurotransmitter is a chemical that is released by a terminal button. It has either an excitatory or inhibitory effect on another neuron.
|
|
|
What is a synapse?
|
A synapse is a junction between a terminal button on one neuron and the membrane of a soma or dendrite of a receiving neuron.
|
|
|
What is exocytosis?
|
Exocytosis is the secretion of a substance by a cell through the vesicles. This is the process by which neurotransmitters are secreted.
|
|
|
What are the three classifications of neuron?
|
- Multipolar neuron
- Bipolar neuron - Unipolar neuron |
|
|
Describe a multipolar neuron
|
A neuron with one axon and many dendrites attached to its soma. Most common in CNS.
|
|
|
Describe a bipolar neuron.
|
A neuron with one axon and one dendrite attached to its soma.
|
|
|
Describe a unipolar neuron.
|
A neuron with one axon attached to its soma. The axon divides, one branch receiving sensory information and the other sending the information to the CNS.
|
|
|
What is a cell membrane?
|
The membrane defines the boundary a cell. It consists of a double layer of lipid molecules.
|
|
|
What is cytoplasm?
|
Cytoplasm makes up the bulk of a cell. It is a semiliquid substance in the interior of the cell.
|
|
|
What is mitochondria?
|
Mitochondria are organelle responsible for extracting energy from nutrients such as glucose. It provides the cell with adenosine triphosphate (ATP). They have their own DNA and can reproduce independently.
|
|
|
What is adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?
|
A molecule used throughout the cell as energy.
|
|
|
What is the nucleus?
|
The nucleus is a structure in the centre of the cell that contains chromosomes. Has its own membrane
|
|
|
What is a chromosome?
|
Chromosomes consist of DNA strands and associated proteins which carry genetic information.
|
|
|
What are genes?
|
Genes are the functional unit of the chromosome. They contain recipes for individual proteins.
|
|
|
What is the cytoskeleton?
|
The cytoskeleton gives the cell its shape. It's composed of microtubules and other types of protein.
|
|
|
What are enzymes?
|
Enzymes are molecules that control chemical reactions by either combining substances or breaking them down.
|
|
|
What are microtubules?
|
A microtubule is the thickest protein strand in the cytoskeleton. It played a role in axoplasmic transport.
|
|
|
What is axoplasmic transport?
|
A process by which substances are propelled along microtubules that run the length of the axon.
|
|
|
Describe anterograde axoplasmic transport.
|
Anterograde: when a substance moves from the soma to the terminal buttons.
|
|
|
Describe retrograde axoplasmic transport.
|
When a substance moves from the terminal buttons towards the soma. Uses the protein dynein.
|
|
|
What supplies energy for axoplasmic transport?
|
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) produced by the mitochondria.
|
|
|
What are glia?
|
Glia are the supporting cells of the CNS. They surround neurons and hold them in place, supply nutrients, insulate and act as housekeepers.
|
|
|
What the three most important types of glia cells?
|
- Astrocytes
- Oligodendrocytes - Microglia |
|
|
What are the roles of an astrocyte?
|
- Provide physical support
- Cleans up debris (phagocytosis) - Provides nutrients - Regulate chemical composition of extracellular fluid |
|
|
What is phagocytosis?
|
A process by which cells engulf and and digest other cells.
|
|
|
What is role of an oligodendrocyte?
|
- Provides insulation from messages in other neurons.
- Produces myelin sheath. - Physical support |
|
|
What are the Nodes of Ranvier?
|
The naked portion of a myelinated axon between adjacent oligodendrocytes or Schwann cells.
|
|
|
What are microglia?
|
Microglia are the smallest of the glial cells.
- Act as phagocytes - Protect brain form invading micro organisms. |
|
|
What are Schwann Cells?
|
Schwann cells have the same function as oligodendrocytes in the PNS.
|
|
|
What is the blood-brain barrier?
|
A semi-permeable barrier between the blood and brain. It is produced by the cells in the walls of the brain capillaries.
|
|
|
What is the function of the blood brain barrier?
|
To maintain a balance of neurons and surrounding extra-cellular fluid.
|
|
|
What is Area postrema?
|
An region where the blood-brain barrier is weak. Poisons can be detected there and can initiate vomiting.
|
|
|
What is an electrode?
|
A conductive medium that can be used to apply electrical stimulation and record electrical potentials.
|
|
|
What is a micro electrode?
|
A very fine electrode, general used to record the activity of individual neurons.
|
|
|
What is an oscilloscope?
|
An instrument that is capable of displaying a graph of voltage as a function of time.
|
|
|
What is membrane potential?
|
The electrical charge across a cell membrane. The difference between the electrical potential inside and outside the cell.
|
|
|
What is the resting membrane potential of a neuron?
|
When it is not being excited or inhibited by postsynaptic potentials, approx -70mV
|
|
|
What is depolarisation?
|
A reduction (toward zero) of the membrane of a cell from its resting potential.
|
|
|
What is hyper polarisation?
|
An increase in the membrane potential of a cell, relative to normal resting potential (more negative)
|
|
|
What is action potential?
|
The brief electrical impulse that provides the basis for conduction of information along the axon.
|
|
|
What is the threshold of excitation?
|
The value of the membrane potential the trust be reached to produce an action potential. (-60mV)
|
|
|
What is the force of diffusion?
|
Movement of molecules from a region of high concentration to regions of low concentration.
|
|
|
What is an electrolyte?
|
An soluble acid, base or salt.
|
|
|
What is an ion?
|
A charged molecule.
|
|
|
What is a positively charged ion?
|
Cation
|
|
|
What is a negatively charged ion?
|
Anion
|
|
|
What is electrostatic pressure?
|
The attractive force between atomic particles charged with opposite signs or the repulsive force between two atomic particles charged with the same sign.
|
|
|
What is intracellular fluid?
|
The fluid within cells
|
|
|
What is extracellular fluid?
|
Body fluids outside the cells.
|
|
|
What are the ions found predominantly in intracellular fluid?
|
- Organic Anions (A-)
- Potassium Ions (K+) |
|
|
What are the ions found predominantly in extracellular fluid?
|
- Chloride Ions (Cl-)
- Sodium Ions (Na+) |
|
|
What is an ion channel?
|
A specialised protein molecule that permits specific ons to enter or leave the cell.
|
|
|
What is a voltage-dependent ion channel?
|
An ion channel that opens/closes according to the value of the membrane potential.
|
|
|
What is the all-or-none law?
|
The principal that once an action potential is triggered within an axon, it is propagated without decrement to the end of the fibre.
|
|
|
What Rate Law?
|
The principal that variations in the intensity of a stimulus or other information being transmitted in an axon are represented by variations in the rate at which that axon fires. `
|
|
|
What is saltatory conduction?
|
Conduction of action potentials by myelinated axons. The action potential appears to jump from one node of Ranvier to the next.
|
|
|
What are the advantages of saltatory conduction?
|
- It is more efficient to do on naked part of the axon as there is less area.
- The myelin speeds the rate of conduction. |
|
|
What is synaptic transmission?
|
Communication between neurons.
|
|
|
What are postsynaptic potentials?
|
Alterations in the membrane potential of postsynaptic neuron, produced by the liberation of neurotransmitter at the synapse.
|
|
|
What is the binding site?
|
The location on a receptor protein to which a ligand binds
|
|
|
What is a ligand?
|
A chemical that binds with the bind site of a receptor. Neurotransmitters are ligands.
|
|
|
What is a synapse?
|
A junction between the terminal buttons at the end of an axial branch of one neuron and membrane of another neuron.
|
|
|
What are the three locations of synapses on an axon?
|
- Dendrites (axodendritic)
- Soma (axosomatic) - Axon (axoaxonic) |
|
|
What is the presynaptic membrane?
|
The membrane of a terminal button that lies adjacent to postsynaptic membrane and through which neurotransmitter is released.
|
|
|
What is the post synaptic membrane?
|
The cell membrane located on the dendrite of the neuron the receives the information.
|
|
|
What is the post synaptic cleft?
|
The space between the presynaptic membrane and the postsynaptic membrane. About 20nm wide.
|
|
|
What is a synaptic vesicle?
|
A small hollow beadlike structure found in the terminal buttons. (contains neurotransmitter) Found mostly near the release zone.
|
|
|
What is the release zone?
|
The region of the interior presynaptic membrane from which neurotransmitter is released.
|
|
|
What is a postsynaptic receptor?
|
A receptor molecule in the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse that contains a binding site for a neurotransmitter.
|
|
|
What is a neurotransmitter-dependent ion channel?
|
An ion channel that opens when a molecule of a neurotransmitter binds with a postsynaptic receptor.
|
|
|
What are the two methods by which neurotransmitters open ion channels?
|
- Direct (Ionotropic receptors)
- Indirect (metabolic receptors) |
|
|
What is an ionotropic receptor?
|
A receptor that contains a binding site and an ion channel that opens when a molecule of the neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
|
|
|
What is a metabolic receptor?
|
A receptor that contains a binding site, which then activates an enzyme that begins a series of events, opening an ion channel elsewhere in the membrane of the cell when a neurotransmitter attaches to the binding site.
|
|
|
What is a G-protein?
|
A protein coupled to a metabolic receptor. It conveys messages to other molecules when a ligand (neurotransmitter) binds with and activates the receptor.
|
|
|
What is a second messenger?
|
A chemical produced when G protein activates an enzyme. It carries a signal that results in the opening of the ion channel or causes other events to occur in the cell.
|
|
|
Describe Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP).
|
Excitatory polarisation of the post synaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
|
|
|
Describe inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP).
|
Inhibitory hyperpolarisation of the postsynaptic membrane of a synapse caused by the liberation of a neurotransmitter by the terminal button.
|
|
|
How is the nature of the postsynaptic potential determined?
|
It is determined by the characteristics of the postsynaptic receptors; the type of ion channel they open.
|
|
|
What are the three major types of neurotransmitter dependent ion channels found on the postsynaptic membrane?
|
- Na+
- K+ - Cl- |
|
|
What type of postsynaptic potential does sodium ion channel cause?
|
An excitatory postsynaptic potential, due to depolarisation.
|
|
|
What type of postsynaptic potential does a potassium ion channel cause?
|
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential, due to hyper polarisation.
|
|
|
What type of postsynaptic potential does a chloride ion channel cause?
|
- If the membrane is at resting potential, nothing.
- If the membrane has been depolarised, it will neutralise EBSPs by causing IPSP. |
|
|
How are postsynaptic potentials terminated?
|
Through:
- Reuptake - Enzymatic deactivation |
|
|
What is reuptake?
|
The reentry of a neurotransmitter by a terminal button back through its membrane, thus terminating its post synaptic potential .
|
|
|
What is enzymatic deactivation?
|
Destruction of a neurotransmitter by an enzyme after its release.
|
|
|
What is the only neurotransmitter terminated by enzymatic deactivation?
|
Acetylcholine (ACh) (by acetylcholinesterase (AChE)).
|
|
|
What is neural integration?
|
A process by which inhibitory and excitatory postsynaptic potentials summate and control the rate of firing of a neuron.
|
|
|
What is an autoreceptor?
|
A receptor molecule located on a neuron that responds to the neurotransmitter released by the same neuron.
|
|
|
What are the functions of of autoreceptors?
|
- Regulate internal process of a cell
- Regulate synthesis and release of a neurotransmitter - Generally serve to inhibit the activity of a transmitter. |
|
|
What is the role of axoaxonic synapses?
|
They alter the amount of neurotransmitter released by the terminal buttons of post synaptic axon (presynaptic inhibition/facilitation)
|
|
|
What is presynaptic inhibition?
|
An action of a presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse that reduces the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
|
|
|
What is presynaptic facilitation?
|
Action of presynaptic terminal button in an axoaxonic synapse that increases the amount of neurotransmitter released by the postsynaptic terminal button.
|
|
|
What is the neuraxis?
|
An imaginary line through the CNS centre from the bottom of the spinal cord to the front of the forebrain.
|
|
|
Describe anterior
|
Located near or toward the head
|
|
|
Describe posterior
|
Located near or toward the tail
|
|
|
Describe rostral
|
Toward the beak. Along the neuraxis toward the front of the face
|
|
|
Describe Caudal
|
Toward the tail. Along the neuraxis away from the face.
|
|
|
Describe ventral
|
Toward the belly, perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the bottom of the skull.
|
|
|
Describe dorsal
|
Toward the back, perpendicular to the neuraxis toward the top of the head or back
|
|
|
Describe lateral
|
Toward the side of the body, aways from the middle
|
|
|
Describe Medial
|
toward the middle of the body, away from the side
|
|
|
Describe ipsilateral
|
Located on the same side of the body
|
|
|
Describe contralateral
|
Located on opposites of the body.
|
|
|
What is a cross section/frontal section?
|
Slice taken at right angles to the neuraxis, parallel to the forehead.
|
|
|
What is a horizontal section?
|
Slice through the brain parallel to the ground
|
|
|
What is a sagittal section?
|
Slice through the brain parallel to the neuraxis and perpendicular to the ground
|
|
|
What is a mid sagittal section?
|
A plane through the neuraxis perpendicular to the ground. Divides the brain into two symmetrical halves.
|
|
|
What are the meninges?
|
3 layers of tissues encasing the CNS.
|
|
|
What are the three layers of the meninges?
|
Dura mater, arachnoid membrane, pia matter.
|
|
|
What is dura mater:
|
Outermost layer of the meninges, though and flexible
|
|
|
What is the arachnoid membrane?
|
Middle layer of the meninges. Lies over the arachnoid space, which contains CSF. Blood vessels run through this layer.
|
|
|
What is pia matter?
|
The layer of the brain adjacent to the brain surface. Has smaller surface blood vessels of brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
What is the subarachnoid space?
|
A fluid filled space that cushions the brain; located between the arachnoid membrane and pia matter.
|
|
|
What is cerebrospinal fluid?
|
Clear fluid that fills the ventricular system of the brain and the subarachnoid space surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
|
|
|
What are the meninges in the PNS
|
Dura mater and pia mater. The fuse together to form a sheath that covers the spinal cranial nerves and peripheral ganglia
|
|
|
Where is CSF manufactured?
|
In the choroid plexus and within the four brain ventricles.
|
|
|
What is the choroid plexus?
|
The highly vascular tissue that protrudes into the ventricles and produces cerebrospinal fluid.
|
|
|
Where are the lateral ventricles located?
|
In the centre of the telencephalon.
|
|
|
Where is the third ventricle located?
|
In the centre of the diencephalon
|
|
|
What is the mass intermedia?
|
Bridge of neural tissue that crosses through the middle of the third ventricle
|
|
|
Where is the fourth ventricle located?
|
Between the cerebellum and dorsal pons.
|
|
|
What is the cerebral aqueduct?
|
A narrow tube that connects the third and fourth ventricle. Located in the mesencephalon.
|
|
|
What is the neural tube?
|
A hollow tube enclosed at the rostral end, forms the ectodermal tissue early in embryonic development.
|
|
|
What is the cerebral cortex?
|
The outermost layer of grey matter of the cerebral hemispheres, about 3mm thick.
|
|
|
Whatis the ventricular zone?
|
A layer of cells that line the inside of the neural tube, contains progenitor cells the CNS
|
|
|
What are progenitor cells?
|
Cells of the ventricular zone that divide and give rise to the cells of the CNS?
|
|
|
Describe symmetrical division.
|
Division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to two identical progenitor cells. It increases the size of the ventricular zone and hence the brain that develops from it.
|
|
|
What is asymmetrical division.
|
Division of a progenitor cell that gives rise to another progenitor cell and a neuron, which migrates away form the ventricular zone towards its final resting place in the brain.
|
|
|
What are radial glia? What is their purpose?
|
Special glia with fibres that grow radial outward from the ventricular zone to the surface of the cortex. They provide guidance for neurons migrating outward during brain development
|
|
|
What are Cajal-Retzius (C-R) cells? What do they do?
|
Specialised neurons that establish themselves in a layer near the terminals of the radial glia. They secrete a chemical that controls the establishment of migrating neurons in the cores layers.
|
|
|
What is neurogenesis?
|
Production of new neurons.
|
|
|
How does neurogenesis occur?
|
Cells leave the ventricular zone via radial glia. They pass the first layer of neurons and form a layer of neurons just inside the C-R layer. This process continues with newer layers passing through older layers.
|
|
|
What is apoptosis?
|
Death of a cell caused by a chemical signal that activates a genetic mechanism inside the cell. Signals the end of cortical development.
|
|
|
Describe CSF flow
|
CSF flows from the LATERAL VENTRICLE to the THIRD VENTRICLE to the FOURTH VENTRICLE via the cerebral aqueduct to the subarachnoid space.
|
|
|
What happens around day 18 of brain development?
|
The nervous system develops from the ectoderm which forms a plate.
|
|
|
What happens on day 21 of brain development?
|
The plate edges curl and fuse together forming the neural tube.
|
|
|
What happens on day 28 of brain development?
|
Neural tube development closes. - The rostral end of the neural tube forms chambers (ventricles)
- The tissue surrounding the chambers will be the three major parts of the brain. |
|
|
What are the 3 major parts of the brain?
|
- Forebrain
- Midbrain - Hindbrain |
|
|
Describe autotopagnosia
|
Damage to the left parietal lobe.
Results in an inability to localise body parts on self and others. Cannot follow instructions to model the performance of another person. |
|
|
Describe unilateral neglect.
|
Damage to right parietal lobe.
A syndrome in which people ignore objects located toward their left and/or ignore the left side of the objects located anywhere. |
|
|
Where is the primary visual cortex located?
|
Within the occipital lobe on the calcimine fissure.
|
|
|
Where is the primary auditory cortex located?
|
Located on the temporal lobe above the lateral fissure
|
|
|
Where is the primary motor cortex located?
|
Located in front of the primary somatosensory cortex on the frontal lobe. Just in front of the central sulcus.
|
|
|
Where is the primary somatosensory cortex located?
|
On the parietal lobe, behind the central sulcus.
|
|
|
What is the purpose of the cerebral cortex association areas?
|
They analyse information from the primary sensory cortexes. Perception and memories take place and are stored there.
|
|
|
What is the prefrontal cortex?
|
A region of the frontal lobe rostral to the premotor cortex, involved with forming strategies and decision making.
|
|
|
What is the neocortex?
|
They phylogenetically newest cortex, including the primary sensory cortex, primary motor cortex and association cortex
|
|
|
What is the limbic cortex?
|
The phylogenetically old cortex, located toward the centre of the cerebral hemispheres. Forms part of the limbic system.
|
|
|
What is the cingulate gyrus?
|
A strip of the limbic cortex along the lateral walls of the groove separating the cerebral hemispheres.
|
|
|
What are the main brain regions of the Limbic system?
|
- anterior thalamic nuclei
- amygdala - hippocampus - mammillary bodies - fornix |
|
|
What is the function of the hippocampus?
|
Involved in learning and memory
|
|
|
What is the function of the amygdala?
|
Involved in emotion
|
|
|
What is the fornix?
|
A fibre bundle that interconnects the hippocampus with the mammillary bodies.
|
|
|
What are the basal ganglia?
|
A collection of subcortical nuclei located just under the anterior aspect of the lateral ventricles.
|
|
|
What do basal ganglia consist of?
|
- Caudate nucleus
- Putamen - Globus pallidus |
|
|
What are the basal ganglia involved in?
|
Movement control
|
|
|
What is the forebrain?
|
The most rostral of the three major divisions of the brain. Contains the telencephalon and the diencephalon.
|
|
|
What does the telencephalon include?
|
Most of the cerebral hemispheres covered by the cerebrum.
|
|
|
What is the cerebral cortex?
|
The outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres.
|
|
|
What are sulci?
|
Small grooves in the cerebral cortex
|
|
|
What are fissures?
|
Large grooves in the cerebral cortex
|
|
|
What are gyri?
|
Bulges in the cerebral cortex.
|
|
|
What is grey matter?
|
Cells that give grey appearance (cell bodies, dendrites)
|
|
|
What is white matter?
|
A large concentration of myelinated axons beneath the cerebral cortex.
|
|
|
What are the four lobes that the cortex is divided into?
|
- Frontal lobe
- Occipital lobe - Parietal lobe - Temporal lobe |
|
|
What structures does the telencephalon consist of?
|
- Cerebral cortex
- Basal ganglia - Limbic system |
|
|
What is the diencephalon? What structures does it contain?
|
The second major division of the four brain. Consists of the thalamus and hypothalamus.
|
|
|
What is the thalamus?
|
Contains nuclei that receive sensory information and transmit this information to the cortex.
|
|
|
What are projection fibres?
|
Axon of a neuron in one brain region whose terminals buttons form synapses with neurons in another region.
|
|
|
What are the nuclei that the thalamus is divided into?
|
- lateral geniculate nucleus
- medial geniculate nucleus - ventro-lateral nucleus |
|
|
What information does the lateral geniculate nucleus receive?
|
Vision
|
|
|
What information does the medial geniculate nucleus receive?
|
Auditory
|
|
|
What information does the ventro-lateral nucleus receive?
|
Movement.
|
|
|
Describe the hypothalamus
|
Contains nuclei involved in the integration of species typical behaviours, control of ANS and endocrine system.
|
|
|
Describe the pituitary gland
|
Attached to the base of the hypothalamus. Controls the anterior and posterior pituitary glands.
|
|
|
Describe the optic chiasm
|
In front of the pituitary gland, merges visual info.
|
|
|
What is the mesencephalon? What does it consist of?
|
Surrounds the cerebral aqueduct. Consists of the tectum and the tegmentum.
|
|
|
What structures does the tectum consist of? Where do they appear?
|
- Superior colliculi (visual)
- Inferior colliculi (audio) Appear as 4 bumps on on the brain stem. |
|
|
What is the brain stem?
|
The stem of the brain, from the medulla to the diencephalon, excluding the cerebellum.
|
|
|
What structures does the tegmentum include?
|
- Rostral end of the reticular formation
- preiaqueductal grey matter - Red nucleus - Substantial migra - Ventral segmental area. |
|
|
Where is the hindbrain located?
|
Surrounds the 4th ventricle
|
|
|
What does structures does the hindbrain consist of?
|
The metencephalon and myelencephalon
|
|
|
What does the metencephalon consist of?
|
- Cerebellum
- Deep cerebellar nuclei - Cerebellar peduncle |
|
|
Describe the function of the deep cerebellar nuclei.
|
Receives projections from the cerebellar cortex and sends information to other parts of the brain.
|
|
|
What are the cerebellar peduncles?
|
One of the three bundles of axons that attach each cerebellar hemisphere to the dorsal pons.
|
|
|
Describe the pons.
|
A bulge in the brain stem, that lies between mesencephalon and the medulla. Contains the core of the reticular formation.
|
|
|
What is the major structure of the myelencephalon?
|
The medulla oblongata.
|
|
|
Describe the medulla oblongata
|
Contains part of the reticular formation. Nuclei of the medulla control vital functions (cardiovascular system, skeletal muscle tone)
|
|
|
What is the spinal cord?
|
A cord of nervous tissue extending from the medulla. Has a long conical structure.
|
|
|
What is the function of the spinal cord?
|
To distribute motor fibre to efferent organs of the body (glands and muscles)
|
|
|
What are the 5 type of vertebrae?
|
- Cervical
- thoracic - lumber - sacral - coccygeal |
|
|
Describe the somatic division of the PNS
|
Comprised by nerves controlling muscle action and carry sensory information back to the CNS
|
|
|
Describe the autonomic division of the PNS (ANS)
|
Governs smooth muscle and gland secretion, controls vegetative function.
|
|
|
What are the two divisions of the ANS
|
- Parasympathetic (controls relaxed state functions)
- Sympathetic (controls arousal and energy expenditure functions) |
|
|
What are spinal nerves?
|
31 nerves that travel to the muscles or sensory receptors they innervate.
|
|
|
Who founded the notion of phrenology?
|
Franz Gall (1980's)
|
|
|
What techniques can be used to examine hemispheric lateralisation?
|
Split brain patients or patients with unilateral lesions.
|
|
|
Describe the Divided Visual Field method
|
Stimulus presented to one VF is initially received and processed by the contralateral hemisphere. VF differences in the response time or accuracy reflect early distinctions in hemispheric functioning.
|
|
|
What issues need to be controlled when using DVF method?
|
- handedness
- position of the stimulus (view distance, 2 degrees) - Stimulus exposure time - Type of response - unilateral/bilateral handed response |
|
|
What is a sham lesion?
|
A control lesion, duplicates all the steps to produce a lesion except the step that actually causes brain damage.
|
|
|
What is sterotaxic surgery?
|
Brain surgery using sterotaxic apparatus to position electrode in a specific position in brain.
|
|
|
What is a stereotaxic atlas?
|
A collection of drawings of brain sections of certain animals, complete with measurements providing coordinates for stereotaxic surgery.
|
|
|
What is a stereotaxic apparatus?
|
A device that enables electrode insertion in a specific part of the brain.
|
|
|
How do we examine lesions studies in humans?
|
Examine the functioning of brain damaged patients and through transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS)
|
|
|
What is transcranial magnetic stimulation?
|
Stimulation of the cerebral cortex by magnetic field. Acts as a lesion.
|
|
|
What are the advantages of TMS?
|
- Localise low-level behaviours
- Can be used to impair cognitive function - Non-invasive and safe |
|
|
What are the disadvantages of TMS?
|
- Crude measure of localisation
- Cannot provide info about high-level process (would interfere with response) |
|
|
How can brain stimulation be caused in human and animals?
|
- Humans: TMS
- Animals: invasive electrodes. |
|
|
What methods are used to examine brain anatomy?
|
- CT scans
- MRI - DTI |
|
|
What methods are used to examine brain metabolic activity?
|
- PET
- fMRI |
|
|
Describe Computerised Axial Tomography (CT scan).
|
An x-ray technique, involving a circular x-ray tube and a x-ray detector. The detector measures the amount of radioactivity. Results in pictures of the skull and its contents.
|
|
|
What can a CT scan detect?
|
Tumours and other structural abnormalities.
|
|
|
What is Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)?
|
A high resolution image derived from measurement of waves of hydrogen atoms emit when activated by radio waves in a magnetic field. Similar to CT scan, but using magnetic field instead of x-rays.
|
|
|
What are the advantages of MRI?
|
Picks up energy of expanded hydrogen atoms as they return to rest.
Can scan a range of angles. Can detect structural abnormalities with more clarity that an a CT scan. |
|
|
What is Positron Emission Tomography (PET)?
|
The use of a device that reveals the localisation of a radio active tracer in the brain. It measures metabolic activity in specific brain regions. 2DG is injected and a computer measures the brain uptake of it.
|
|
|
What are advantages of PET scans?
|
Results in a picture brain slice showing relative activity regions
Can pick up tumours. |
|
|
What are the disadvantages of PET scans?
|
- High operating cots of the cyclotron.
|
|
|
What is Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging?
|
A modification of MRI that permits measurement of regional metabolism in the brain. Emits a blood oxygen level dependent signal (BOLD), where more oxygen = most mental activity.
|
|
|
What are the advantages of fMRI?
|
- More resolution than PET
- No injection - Provides structural and functional information. - |
|
|
What methods can be used to record brain neural activity?
|
- EEG
- ERPs - MEG |
|
|
What is electroencephalography (EEG)?
|
Electrical (neural) activity recorded by scalp micro electrodes. Measures the sum of electrical activity throughout the head (including muscles, eyes, skin and blood)
|
|
|
What are the advantages of EEG?
|
- Used in diagnosis and research
- Waveforms can be associated with states of consciousness or cerebral pathology |
|
|
What are the disadvantages of EEG?
|
- Cannot get a clear view of the location of neural activity.
|
|
|
Describe ERP
|
Produces a plot of average EEG signals at each time point by recording EEG to a stimulus multiple times.
|
|
|
Describe magnetoencephalography (MEG).
|
A procedure that detects groups of synchronously activated neurons via magnetic field induced by their electrical activity. Performed with neuromagnetometers that contain an array of SQUIDS.
|
|
|
What are the advantages of magnetoencephalography?
|
Localisation of source
|
|
|
What are the disadvantages of MEG?
|
- High cost
- only detects current flow paraell to skull surface |
|
|
What are genetic methods used in bio psych?
|
-Twin studies
- Adoption studies |
|
|
Describe twin studies
|
- Use concordance rates
- Twins concordant: both have a train - Twins discordant: one twin has a trait - Concordant diagnosis greater in monozygotic than dizygotic twins. |
|
|
Describe adoption studies.
|
Study the heritability of a trait.
Traits affected by: heredity, environment and their interaction If traits resemble biological parents: trait has genetic influence If traits resemble adopted parents: traits have environmental influence. |
|
|
What is electooculography (EOG)?
|
Records eye movements through electrodes placed around the eye.
|
|
|
What is electromyography (EMG)?
|
Procedure records electrical activity of muscles.
|
|
|
What is Skin Conductance?
|
Ability of skin to conduct electricity.
Measures the change in SC due to stimulus. |
|
|
How is cardiovascular activity measured?
|
- Heart rate (using chest electrodes
- Blood pressure |
|
|
What 3 comments are involved in emotional response?
|
- Behavioural (appropriate muscle movement)
- autonomic (Increase in SNS and decrease in PSN activity) - Hormonal (reinforces autonomic response, secretion of epinephrine) |
|
|
What is the function of the amygdala in emotion?
|
Integrates the neural systems that are part of an emotional response.
|
|
|
What 3 regions of the amygdala are important in emotional response?
|
Lateral nucleus
Basal nucleus central nucleus |
|
|
What regions does the lateral nucleus (LA) receive input from?
|
- All regions of the neocortex (including ventromedial prefrontal cortex, thalamus and hippocampal formation)
|
|
|
What regions does the lateral nucleus (LA) project to?
|
The basal nucleus, ventral striatum (reinforces stimuli on learning) and dorsomedial nucleus.
|
|
|
What regions does the Basal nucleus (B) receive information from?
|
- Sensory input from the LA
|
|
|
What regions does the Basal Nucleus relay information to?
|
The central nucleus (CE) and periaquaductal grey matter of the brain.
|
|
|
What regions does the Central nucleus (CE) receive information from?
|
The basal nucleus and lateral nucleus
|
|
|
What regions does the central nucleus (CE) relay information to?
|
Hypothalamus, midbrain, pons, medulla.
|
|
|
What does a high level of activation of the CE indicate?
|
Exposure to threatening stimuli.
|
|
|
What does damage to the CE result in?
|
Reduced emotional behaviour and physiological response.
|
|
|
What does stimulation of the CE result in?
|
Increased fear associated behaviours.
|
|
|
Where do physiological changes responsible for classical conditioning take place?
|
In the LA, where information is then sent to the CE, which relays info to the hypothalamus, pons, medulla to produce a behavioural, autonomic and hormonal conditioned response.
|
|
|
What is responsible for controlling the expression and the extinction of conditioned emotional responses?
|
The Ventromedial Prefrontal cortex (vmPFC)
|
|
|
What does stimulation of they hypothalamus in humans show (regarding Conditioned emotional response)?
|
Autonomic responses associated with fear, but not the feeling of being afraid. Only amygdala stimulation resulted in feeling afraid.
|
|
|
How does damage to the amygdala impact emotion?
|
- Impairs CER acquisition
- Interferes with memory advantage of emotionally intense events. |
|
|
What is the role of serotonin in behaviour?
|
- Inhibits aggression
- Regulates risky behaviour - Low levels associated with aggression and anti-social behaviour. |
|
|
What has fMRI shown regarding serotonin levels?
|
People with one short allele for the serotonin transporter gene showed greater amygdala activation (more negative emotion)
|
|
|
What regions does the vmPFC receive input from?
|
- dorsomedial thalamus
- temporal cortex - ventral segmental area - olfactory system - amygdala |
|
|
Where does vmPFC output go to?
|
- cingulate cortex
- hippocampal formation - temporal cortex - lateral hypothalamus - amygdala |
|
|
What does damage to the vmPFC result in?
|
Reduction of inhibition and self concern.
|
|
|
What is the role of vmPFC in emotional behaviour?
|
- Translates judgements of situations into appropriate feelings and behaviours
- allows us to see consequences of violent reactions. |
|
|
What did Darwin believe of emotional behaviour?
|
That it was innate and species typical
- Universality of emotion - ability of blind people to sense emotion. |
|
|
What hemisphere has an advantage for emotional comprehension?
|
Right hemisphere. Better at emotional expression.
|
|
|
How does damage to the amygdala and RH affect emotional recognition?
|
Inability to recognise expression. Imitation of the expression can assist with recognition.
|
|
|
Describe Volitional facial paresis.
|
Problems with voluntary facial movement, can express genuine emotion.
- Damage to the face region of the Primary motor cortex/subcortical connections. |
|
|
Describe Emotional facial paresis.
|
Lack of movement for facial muscle in response to emotions, can do voluntary movement.
- damage to insular prefrontal cortex, white matter of frontal lobe/parts of the thalamus. |
|
|
What does James Lange theory state of emotion?
|
Behaviours and physiological responses are directly elicited by situations and feelings are produced by feedback from these behaviours and responses.
|
