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96 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Which portions of the nephron are in the renal cortex?
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The renal corpuscle, PCT, DCT, and proximal portions of the loop of Henle and collecting duct
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Why don't plasma proteins pass into the capsular space under normal circumstances?
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pores of the glomerular capillaries won't allow substances the size of proteins pass into the capsular space, the filtration slits will only allow the smallest plasma proteins to pass
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Damage to which part of the nephron would interfere with the control of blood pressure?
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the juxtaglomerular apparatus (part of the distal convoluted tubule next to the afferent arteriole)
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What nephron structures are involved in filtration?
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glomerulare capillaries, lamina densa, filtration slits of the podocytes
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What occurs when the plasma concentration of a substance exceeds its transport maximum?
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the excess is not reabsorbed, it is excreted in urine
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How would a decrease in blood pressure affect the GFR?
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it would reduce the blood hydrostatic pressure within the glomerulus and decrease the GFR
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Obstruction of a ureter by a kidney stone would interfere with the flow of urine between which two points?
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between the renal pelvis and the urinary bladder
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The ability to control the micturition reflex depends on your ability to control which muscle?
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external urinary sphincter, a ring of skeletal muscle formed by the urogenital diaphragm, it acts as a valve
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The basic functional unit of the kidney is the
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nephron
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The process of urine formation involves all of the following except
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secretion of excess lipoprotein and glucose molecules
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What is the primary function of the urinary system?
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performs vital excretory functions, eliminates organic waste products, also regulates volume and solute concentration of body fluids
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What structures are components of the urinary system?
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kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra
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Name and define the 3 distinct processes involved in the production of urine.
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filtration-water and solutes pass from glomerular capillaries into capsular space
reabsorption-water and nutrients pass back into bloodstream from filtrate in tubules secretion- wastes and ions are secreted into filtrate in tubules from blood stream |
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Which parts of the urinary system are responsible for the transport, storage, and elimination of urine?
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ureters-transport
urinary bladder-storage urethra-elimination |
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When the renal threshold for a substance exceeds its tubular maximum
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the amount of substance that exceeds the tubular maximum will be found in the urine
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How are proteins excluded from filtrate? Why?
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they are too big to pass through the filtration slits of the podocytes, maintaining proteins in the plasma will keep osmotic pressure up and pull water back into the bloodstream
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Describe the micturition reflex.
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urinary bladder contains 200mL, stretch receptors stimulate parasympathetic motor neruons, action potentials reach bladder wall muscles, travel over pelvic nerves and cause bladder contractions
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Trace the path of filtrate from corpuscle to renal pelvis
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renal corpuscle, proximal ct, loop of Henle, distal ct, collecting duct, papillary duct, renal pelvis
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What effect would increased amounts of aldosterone have on the K+ concentration in urine?
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it would increase K+ concentration in urine, Na+ concentration would decrease
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What effect would a decrease in the Na+ concentration of filtrate have on the pH of tubular fluid?
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higher pH because fewer hydrogen ions could be secreted into the tubular fluid, hydrogen is secreted in as sodium is reabsorbed out of the tubular fluid
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How would the lack of juxtamedullary nephrons affect the volume and osmotic concentration of urine?
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urine would have higher volume and lower osmotic concentration because less water would be reabsorbed into the blood stream
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Why does a decrease in the amount of Na+ in the distal convoluted tubule lead to an increase in blood pressure?
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a decrease in Na+ in the DCT stimulates renin release by the macula densa cells, renin activates angiotensin which increases blood pressure
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The glomerular filtration rate is regulated by all of the following except
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cardiac output
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The distal convoluted tubule is an important site for
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active secretion of ions
active secretion of acids and other materials selective reabsorption of sodium ions from the tubular fluid |
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Changing the diameter of the afferent and efferent arterioles to alter the GFR can be an example of ___ regulation
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hormonal, autonomic, and autoregulation (local)
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Name the segments of the nephron distal to the renal corpuscle and state the function(s) of each.
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proximal convoluted tubule-reabsorbs useful organic substrates from filtrate
loop of Henle-reabsorbs over 90 percent of the water in the filtrate distal convoluted tubule-secretes into the filtrate waste products that were missed by filtration |
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What is the function of the juxtaglomerular apparatus?
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secretes the enzyme renin and the hormone erythropoietin
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What are the primary effects of angiotensin II on kidney function and regulation?
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-vasoconstriction of periphs, causing increased pressure in renal arteries
-consriction of efferent arteriole, elevating pressure and filtration rate -stimulates reabsorption of Na and water in PCT -causes release of ADH, which stimulates water reabsorption in DCT, thirst sensation -casues release of aldosterone, stimulates Na reabsorption in DCT -causes epinephrine release, elevates renal blood pressure |
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Sympathetic activation of the nerve fibers in the nephron causes
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-regulation of glomerular blood flow and pressure
-stimulation of renin release from the juxtaglomerular apparatus -the direct stimulation of water and Na reabsorption |
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Sodium reabsorption in the DCT and cortical portion of the collecting system is accelerated by the secretion of
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aldosterone
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When ADH levels rise
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the amount of water reabsorbed increases
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The control of blood pH by the kidneys during acidosis involves
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the secretion of hydrogen ions and reabsorption of bicarbonate ions from the tubular fluid
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What interacting controls stabilize the glomerular filtration rate (GFR)?
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autoregulation at the local level
hormonal regulation from the kidneys autonomic regulation (sympathetic ANS) |
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What primary changes occur in the composition and concentration of filtrate as a result of activity in the proximal convoluted tubule?
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-facilitated diffusion and cotransport: 99 percent of glucose, amino acids, and other nutrients are reabsorbed
-active ion reabsorption: reduction of solute concentration -passive diffusion: more reduced solute concentration and water reabsorption |
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In a normal kidney, which of the following conditions would cause an increase in the GFR?
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a decrease in the concentration of plasma proteins in the blood
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In response to excess water in the body
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the permeability of the distal convoluted tubules and collecting ducts to water is decreased
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Why might a diuretic help to reduce arm and leg edema?
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increasing urine volume would decrease the total blood volume of the body, which would decrease blood pressure, which could decrease edema
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Why would renal arteriosclerosis cause hypertension?
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causes decreased blood flow and renal ischemia, triggers the juxtaglomerular apparatus to produce more renin, leads to angiotensin II and aldosterone, angiotensin causes vasoconstriction and increases blood pressure, aldosterone increases sodium and water reabsorption and also increases blood pressure
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If mannitol is a sugar that is filtered but not reabsorbed by the kidneys, what would drinking a solution of mannitol do to the volume of urine produced?
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it would increase the osmolarity of filtrate, which would decrease water reabsorption and increase urine volume
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On a warm day, would the cremaster muscle be contracted or relaxed? Why?
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it would be relaxed so the sac could descend away from the warmth of the body and cool the testes
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What will happen if the arteries within the penis dilate?
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allows blood flow to increase and the vascular chambers become engorged with blood, causes an erection
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What effect would low levels of FSH have on sperm production?
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low levels of testosterone which would equal lower rate of sperm production and low sperm count
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Developing spermatozoa are nourished by the
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sustentacular cells
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The ovaries are responsible for
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production of female gametes
secretion of female sex hormones secretion of inhibin |
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In females, meiosis is not completed until
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fertilization occurs
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Trace the duct system that the sperm traverses from production to exterior of body.
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seminiferous tubules, rete testis, efferent ducts, epididymis, ductus deferens, ejaculatory duct, urethra
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Which accessory organs and glands contribute to the composition of sperm? What are the functions of each?
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seminal vesicles
prostate gland bulbourethral glands -activate spermatozoa, nutrients for motility, propelling sperm, buffers to counter acidity |
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What are the primary cell populations in the testes that are responsible for functions related to reproductive activity? What are the functions of these cells?
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-interstitial cells (Leydigs) produce male sex hormones (androgens-testosterone)
-sustentacular cells maintain blood-testis barrier, support spermatogenesis and spermiogenesis, secrete inhibin, andgrogen-binding protein, and mullerian-inhibitting factor |
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Identify the three regions of the male urethra.
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prostatic urethra
membranous urethra spongy urethra |
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List the functions of testosterone in males.
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-stimulate spermatogenesis, promote maturation of spermatozoa
-maintain male accessory repro. organs -determine male secondary sex characteristics -stimulate metabolic operations (protein synthesis and muscle growth) -influence brain development (sexual behaviors and sex drive) |
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What are the main differences in gamete production between males and females?
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-males produce gametes their entire life, females only from menarche to menopause
-males produce many at a time, females 1 or 2 a month -males release mature gametes that have complete meiosis, females release secondary oocytes held in meiosis II |
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Describe the erectile tissues of the penis. How does erection occur?
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corpora cavernosa- tissue surrounds artery
corpus spongiosum- elastic fibers parasympathetic neurons cause nitric oxide release, causes smooth muscles to relax in arterial walls, more blood flow, vascular channels in tissues become engorged |
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As the result of infections such as gonorrhea, scar tissue can block the lumen of each uterine tube. How would this blockage affect a woman's ability to conceive?
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the sperm could not travel up and fertilize the egg, or once fertilized the egg might not be able to travel to the uterus for implantation
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What is the advantage of the acidic pH of the vagina?
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prevents bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections in this area
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Which layer of the uterus is sloughed off during menstruation?
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the functional layer of the endometrium
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What changes would you expect to observe in the ovarian cycle if the LH surge did not occur?
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ovulation and corpus luteum formation wouldn't occur
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What effect would a blockage of progesterone receptors in the uterus have on the endometrium?
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progesterone causes functional maturation and secretion of the endometrium, so the development would be inhibited and the uterus would not be prepared for pregnancy
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What event in the uterine cycle occurs when the levels of estrogens and progesterone decline?
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the beginning of menstruation, the end of the uterine cycle
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An inability to contract the ischiocavernosus and bulbospongiosus muscles would interfere with which parts of the male sex act?
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ejaculation and orgasm
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What changes occur in females during sexual arousal as the result of increased parasympathetic stimulation?
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-erectile tissue of clitoris fill with blood
-secretion of cervical and vaginal glands increases -blood flow to vaginal walls increases -blood vessels in nipples engorge |
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Why does the level of FSH rise and remain high during menopause?
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circulating estrogen levels drop, since estrogen has an inhibitory effect on FSH, the FSH levels get higher in absence of estrogen
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A sudden surge in LH secretion causes the
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rupture of the follicular wall and ovulation
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The principal hormone of the postovulatory phase is
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progesterone
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List and summarize the important steps in the ovarian cycle.
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1-formation of primary follicles
2-formation of secondary follicles 3-formation of a tertiary follicle 4-ovulation 5-formation and degeneration of the corpus luteum |
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Describe the histological composition of the uterine wall.
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myometrium-outer muscular layer
endometrium-inner glandular layer perimetrium-incomplete serosal layer |
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Waht is the role of the clitoris in the female reproductive system?
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structural external genitalia, like a penis, contains erectile tissue, provides pleasurable sensations during arousal
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All of the following are true of pelvic inflammatory disease except that it
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can lead to a ruptured urinary bladder
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In the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle, the ovary is
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maturing a follicle
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Using an average cycle of 28 days, describe each of the three phases of the uterine cycle.
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1-menses-degeneration and loss of functional zone, 1-7 days, 35-50mL blood lost
2-proliferative phase-growth and vascularization to restore functional zone, end of menses to beginning of ovulation, around day 14 3-secretory phase-glands enlarge, more secretion, arteries enlarge in functional zone, stmulated by progestins and estrogens from corpus luteum, begins at ovulation and lasts as long as corpus luteum is intact |
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Describe the hormonal events associated with the ovarian cycle.
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-follicular development, estrogen and inhibin levels rise, inhibit GnRH and FSH release
-LH gradually rises with rising estrogen -around day 14, estrogen levels peak and LH surge causes ovulation by rupturing follicle wall -LH stimulates corpus luteum formation, which secretes some estrogen and a lot of progesterone -12 days after ovulation, declining progesterone and estrogen levels cause GnRH production to increase, leads to more FSH and LH, cycle starts over |
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Describe the hormonal events associated with the uterine cycle.
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-corpus luteum degenerates, progesterone and estrogen levels drop, menses breakdown
-rising FSH, LH, and estrogen cause repair of functional zone -during postovulatory phase, estrogen and progesterone cause enlargement of endometrial glands and more secretion |
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Summarize the steps that occur in sexual arousal and orgasm. Do these processes differ in males and females?
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sensory nerve stimulation causes parasympathetic outflow over pelvic nerve, causes erection
orgasm from muscle contraction |
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How does the aging process affect the reproductive systems of men and women?
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women-45-55 menopause, ovulation and menstruation stop, rise of GnRH, FSH, and LH, drop in estrogen and progesterone
men-50-60 male climacteric, testosterone declines, FSH and LH rise, reduction in sexual activity |
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Why would peritonitis (inflammation of peritoneum) occur more commonly in females than males?
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infectious organisms can exit urethral orifice into vagina, then into uterus, uterine tubes, and finally into peritoneal cavity
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Why would a symptom of endometriosis (endometrial cells go out into peritoneal cavity) be periodic pain?
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receptors for estrogen and progesterone as if they were in the uterus, develop in size with rising hormones, can push on other tissues during peaks in hormone levels
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Contraceptive pills contain estradiol or estradiol and progesterone that prevent follicle maturation and ovulation. How?
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inhibits GnRH and FSH, LH, follicles don't develop and release, no LH surge for ovulation, mature follicles will degenerate
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What is the developmental fate of the inner cell mass of the blastocyst?
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it becomes the embryo
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Sue's pregnancy tests indicates the presence of elevated levels of human chorionic gonadotropin hCG. Is she pregnant?
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yes, after fertilization developing trophoblasts and the placenta produce and release hCG
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What are two important funcitons of the placent?
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nutrient and gas exchange, waste removal, hormone secretion
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Why does a mother's blood volume increase during pregnancy?
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Blood flow through the placenta reduces the volume of blood in the mother's systemic circuit, this stimulates an increase in maternal blood volume to compensate
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What effect would a decrease in progesterone have on the uterus during late pregnancy?
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progesterone reduces contractions, decrease could lead to contractions and labor
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The chorionic villi
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increase the surface area available for exchange between the placenta and the maternal blood
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The hormone that is the basis for a pregnancy test is
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human chorionic gonadotropin hCG
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The stage of development that follows cleavage is the
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morula
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What begins as a zygote arrives in the uterine cavity as a
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blastocyst
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The surface that provides for active and passive exchange between the fetal and maternal bloodstreams is the
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chorionic villi
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Describe the changes that occur in the oocyte immediately after fertilization.
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cell membranes fuse, oocyte activated and meiosis II finishes, no more sperm can enter, pronuclei of female and male fuse and zygote prepares for cleavage
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What are the four extraembryonic membranes?
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yolk sac, amnion, allantois, chorion
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How do the four extraembryonic membranes form, and what are their functions?
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-yolk sac from endoderm and mesoderm, site of blood cell formation
-amnion from ectoderm and mesoderm, encloses fluid sac -allantois from endoderm and mesoderm, gives rise to the bladder -chorion from mesoderm and trophoblast, circulation for blood carries nutrients |
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Identify the three stages of labor, and describe the events that characterize each stage?
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1-dilation, cervix dilates, fetus moves toward opening, membrane ruptures
2-expulsion, cervix dilates completely, fetus emerges from the vagina 3-placental, uterus contracts, ejects placenta |
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List the factors involved in initiating labor contractions.
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relaxin produced by the placenta softens pubic symphysis, weight of fetus deforms cervical os, this plus rising estrogen levels promote oxytocin release, stretched muscles become more excitable
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If a sperm cell lacked sufficient quantities of hyaluronidase, it would not be able to
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penetrate the corona radiata
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After implantation, how does the developing embryo obtain nutrients? What structures and processes are involved?
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through the chorionic villi and later the placenta
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In addition to its role in the nutrition of the fetus, what are the primary endocrine functions of the placenta?
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-produces human chorionic gonadotropin which maintains corpus luteum and therefore progesterone which keeps functional layer going
-placental lactogen and prolactin help prepare mammary glands -relaxin increases flexibility of pubic symphysis, suppresses oxytocin release which delays labor contractions |
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Discuss the changes that occur in maternal systems during pregnancy. Why are these changes functionally significant?
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respiratory rate increases, blood tidal volume increases, nutrient intakes increase, glomerular filtration increases
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During true labor, what physiological mechanisms ensure that uterine contractions continue until delivery has been completed?
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positive feedback mechanisms
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