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71 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Net Equation of Cellular Respiration |
C6H12O6 + 6 O2 >> 6 CO2 + 6 H2O + 32 ATP + heat |
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What is happening during cellular respiration? |
Glucose is being oxidized to CO2 and O2 is being reduced to H20. |
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Oxidation and Reduction |
The transfer of electrons Oxidation: to lessen in electron density Reduction: to increase in electron density |
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Four Stages of Cellular Respiration |
1. Glycolysis (cytosol) 2. Pyruvate Oxidation (mitochondrial matrix) 3. TCA (Citric Acid, Krebs) cycle (mitochondrial matrix) 4. Oxidative Phosphorylation (inner mitochondrial membrane) |
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Glycolysis(cytosol) |
a. Glucose (6C) >> 2 pyruvate (3C) b. Net gain of 2 ATP (via substrate-level phosphorylation) c. Reduction of 2 NAD+ to NADH |
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Pyruvate Oxidation (mitochondrial matrix) |
a. Pyruvate (3C) >> acetyl CoA (2C) (so two acetyl CoA per glucose molecule) b. Reduction of one NAD+ to NADH (again, two per glucose) c. Loss of CO2 (1C) (again, two per glucose) d. Acetyl CoA feeds into the TCA cycle e. NADH feeds into oxidative phosphorylation |
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TCA (Citric Acid, Krebs) cycle (mitochondrial matrix) |
a. Acetyl CoA(2C) >> CO2 per turn b. One acetyl CoA yields 1 ATP 3 NADH, and 1 FADH2 per turn. |
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Oxidative Phosphorylation (inner mitochondrial membrane) |
a. NADH and FADH2 provide electrons, which are transported along the electron transport chain of the inner mitochondrial membrane. b. 02>>H20 and is the ultimate electron acceptor c. Electron transport generates a proton gradient. d. ATP synthase uses this gradient to make ATP e. 2.5 ATP per NADH and 1.5 ATP per FADH2. |
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Fermentation |
If oxygen is limiting, e.g. during peak muscular exercise, or if you lack mitochondria like bacteria, pyruvate, which is the end product of glycolysis, cannot be oxidized further.In these cases, pyruvate is reduced to lactate (lactate fermentation) or decarboxylated and then reduced to ethanol (alcohol fermentation). |
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Autotroph and Heterotroph |
Autotroph – makes its own food. Heterotroph – must take in food; this means eating plants or eating animals that have eaten plants |
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Mesophylls |
photosynthetic cells in plant leaves |
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Stomata and guard cells |
structures in plant leaves that regulate gas exchange |
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Chloroplast |
photosynthetic organelle |
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Stroma |
thick fluid within inner membrane; site of ATP synthesis |
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Thylakoid |
membranous sacs; contain chlorophyll and electron transport chain |
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Net Equation of Photosynthesis |
6 CO2 + 6 H2O >> C6H12O6 + 6 O2 |
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Two Stages of Photosynthesis |
Light Reactions: Takes place in thylakoid. Chlorophyll captures the energy of sunlight, to make ATP and NADPH,with O2 as a by-product. Calvin Cycle: Uses energy from light reactions (ATP and NADPH) to fix carbon and generate organic compounds (e.g. glucose). |
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Chlorophyll |
Absorbs energy from the sun(in the blue and red range)and uses that energy to excite electrons, which it passes on. |
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Rubisco |
Catalyzes the first step in the Calvin cycle |
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Production of one Glucose molecule |
Requires six “turns” of the Calvin cycle, 6CO2, 18 ATP, and 12 NADPH. |
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Asexual Reproduction |
one parent; offspring are identical to parent and to each other; variation comes about via mutation |
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Who undergoes asexual reproduction? |
Prokaryotes, Single-celled eukaryotes (e.g. yeast, amoeba), and some higher eukaryotes (e.g. sea stars, many plants) |
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Advantages of asexual reproduction? |
animals may be immobile; rapid spreading of a well adapted species (also carries risks in the face of rapid environmental change) |
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Sexual Reproduction |
two parents; almost limitless diversity (although ultimately this diversity also derives from mutation); better able to survive rapid environmental change. Fusion of two haploid gametes to form a diploid zygote |
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What must reproduce by binary fission and why? |
Prokaryotes, because they lack a nucleus |
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Mitosis in asexual and multicelluar Eukaryotes |
1. Reproduction, in asexual reproducing eukaryotes 2. Growth, development, tissue repair and replacement in multicellular eukaryotes. |
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Meiosis |
Generation of gametes for sexual reproduction. |
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Cell Cycle(in order) |
Interphase (Mitosis) Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telephase Cytokinesis |
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Parts of Interphase |
G1: Cytoplasmic components increase, cell size increases S: DNA is replicated G2: DNA repair |
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Prophase |
1. DNA condenses so that chromosomes are visible in a light microscope 2. Nuclear envelope breaks down 3. Mitotic spindle begins to form |
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Metaphase |
1. Chromosomes align along the middle of cell (Metaphase Plate) 2. Mitotic spindle fully formed |
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Anaphase |
1. Sister chromatids separate 2. Migrate to opposite ends of thecell |
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Telophase(and Cytokinesis) |
1. chromatin uncoils 2. new nuclear envelopes form 3. mitotic spindle disappears 4. cytokinesis |
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Cytokinesis in Animals vs Plants |
Animals – a cleavage furrow forms and the cell pinches in two Plants – a new cell wall forms between the two daughter cells |
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The Result of Mitosis is... |
two genetically identical daughter cells. |
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Checkpoints |
Cell cycle does not proceed by default (like dominoes); it will normally stop unless it receives a signal to proceed. An important checkpoint is in G1 and many growth factors work by overcoming this checkpoint. |
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Cancer |
Escape from normal cell cycle control; uncontrolled growth is an important aspect of cancer. |
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Tumor |
mass of transformed cells; leads to tissue damage (and death) by obstruction |
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Malignant Tumor |
capable of traveling to and growing in a secondary site (metastasis) leading to a secondary tumor; most cancer death is due to secondary tumors |
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Chemotherapy |
some forms of chemotherapy act by halting the cell cycle or attacking the mitotic spindle |
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Humans have how many diploid and haploid chromosomes? What do each chromosome exist as? |
23 diploid and 46 haploid, as a homologous pair of one paternal and one maternal |
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Tetrad |
pair of homologous chromosomes,each of which exists as a pair of sister chromatids, aligned during meiosis (a pair of pairs) |
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Sexual Life Cycle |
Diploid>>Haploid(meiosis)>>Diploid(fertilization) |
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Features of Meiosis |
1. Occurs only in reproductive organs. 2. Generates haploid cells (gametes) from diploid cells. 3. DNA replication followed by two rounds of cell division to produce four haploid gametes |
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Meiosis in brief |
Interphase – DNA is replicated Meiosis I – segregation of homologous pairs Meiosis II – segregation of sister chromatids |
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Prophase I(meiosis) |
chromosomes condense as in mitosis, but now homologous chromosomes come together to form a synapse comprising two pairs of sister chromatids called a tetrad. Crossing over occurs while the tetrads are together. |
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Metaphase I(meiosis) |
chromosomes align along the metaphase plate; the spindle microtube distinguishes between pairs of sister chromatids in a tetrad so that itcan separate homologous pairs. |
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Anaphase I(meiosis) |
migration of chromosomes toward the two poles of the cell. In contrast to mitosis however, sister chromatids remain associated; only tetrads come apart so homologous chromosomes migrate to opposite poles. |
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Telophase I and Cytokinesis(meiosis) |
each pole of the cell has a haploid set of chromosomes (in duplicate form as sister chromatids); cytokinesis leads to two haploid daughter cells; meiosis II may immediately follow telophase I or there may be an interphase (without DNA replication). |
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Meiosis II |
essentially the same as mitosis but starts with haploid cells resulting in four haploid daughter cells. |
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Meiotic Recombination(crossing over) |
the exchange of corresponding segments between non-sister chromatids of homologous chromosomes. It happens during Prophase I and leads to the generation of recombinant chromosome and increases genetic diversity |
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Nondisjunction |
failure of homologous chromosomes to separate during anaphase I or of sister chromatids to separate during anaphase II. |
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Nondisjunction can lead to... |
one extra or one fewer chromosome, but loss of any chromosome except for Y is deadly to the developing embryo. Similarly, having an extra chromosome (trisomy) is also deadly to the embryo except X, Y, 13, 18, and 21. |
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Karyotype |
ordered display of chromosomes; detects abnormalities in chromosome number. |
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Mendels Laws |
1. Law of Segregation 2. Law of Independent Assortment |
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Law of Segregation |
Genes exist in different versions (alleles),which accounts for variation in a character. An individual has two alleles for each gene,one from each parent, and can be homozygous or heterozygous. |
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Law of Independent Assortment |
The alleles of a given gene segregate and the alleles of different genes segregate independently of one another. |
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Variations of Mendel's Laws |
Environmental Effects Polygenic Traits Linkage Incomplete Dominance Codominance Pleiotropy Multiple Alleles |
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Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance |
Genes occupy discreet loci (positions) on chromosomes and the behavior of chromosomes during meiosis and fertilization determines segregation and independent assortment. |
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Transcription |
synthesis of RNA (mRNA, rRNA, tRNA) using DNA as a template. |
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Translation |
synthesis of protein using mRNA as a template |
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Messenger RNA |
encoded by genes, in turn it encodes protein; a triplet of nucleotides (called codons) encode on amino acid |
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Transfer RNA (tRNA) |
covalently binds and “charges” amino acids; reads the genetic code through an anticodon |
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Ribosomal RNA (rRNA) |
the RNA component of ribosomes |
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Genotype and Phenotype |
Genotype: heritable information contained in nucleotide sequence Phenotype: organism’s physical traits |
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Codon |
a single amino acid is encoded by a triplet of nucleotides. One start codon and three stop Codons. Redundant but not ambiguous. |
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Steps of Protein Synthesis |
Initiation Elongation Termination |
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Gene= |
1. coding sequence (exons in eukaryotes) 2. introns (eukaryotes) 3. controlling elements. |
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Blood Types |
A B AB O |
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Blood Type Alleles |
IA IB IAIB ii |
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operon |
cluster of genes under control of a common promoter |