Bio 1012 Test 2

Front 1

what is glucose metabolism?

Back 1

converting glucose and oxygen to ATP to power muscles, brainn action potentials, and transport proteins

Front 2

what to transport proteins do?

Back 2

pump nutrients into cell to keep ionic balance in blood

Front 3

what is the unique thing about ATP?

Back 3

each cell has to make its own ATP. ATP in the blood is useless because there are no ATP transporter proteins

Front 4

what is cytoplasm made up of? why is that important?

Back 4

90% water
8% enzymes
2% substrates
glucose metabolism occurs in the cytoplasm

Front 5

where does cellular respiration occur?

Back 5

in the mitochondria

Front 6

what are some symptoms of low ATP?

Back 6

brain is confused, cranky, dizzy, unconcious, dead

Front 7

what is prostaglandin?

Back 7

a hormone. is starts labor in birth, causes erections in males.
very expensive

Front 8

what are optical isomers?

Back 8

mirror image chemicals.
some chemicals have mirror image versions

examples include amino acids and sugars.

Front 9

how does the body use optical isomers?

Back 9

the body nevers uses both mirror images because the active site can't fit both.

example, asparagine:
l-asparagine is used by all life but d-asparagine is used by a few rare bacteria

Front 10

why are chromosomes wound up?

Back 10

because if not, they are vulnerable.

a break in a chromosome results in a mutation

Front 11

what are intermidiate fibers?

Back 11

they are made of protein fibers wound together to form the "skeleton" of cells.

Front 12

what is one protein fiber not wound up?

Back 12

a polypeptide (amino acid chain)

Front 13

what are fat cells"?

Back 13

they are under the skin and are permanent (you can only lose the fat within the cells).

there are fat droplets made of triglycerides inside the cells

Front 14

what are the triglycerides composed of?

Back 14

they are zig zags of carbon chains

Front 15

hydrolysis reaction?

Back 15

uses water to digest starch

Front 16

dehydration reaction?

Back 16

water is a product used when starch is made

Front 17

what are carbohydrates?

Back 17

sugars and polysaccharides
there are 80 types of sugars
l-types are rare
d-types are used by all life

Front 18

emile fischer?

Back 18

1905. discovered the straight chain model of glucose.
1535. it was discovered that 98% of glucose is a ring that the enzymes fit

Front 19

disaccharides?

Back 19

2 sugars together.

ex. sucrose=glucose + fructose
maltose=beer sugar
lactose=milk sugar

(3 most common sugars)

Front 20

what are polysaccharides?

Back 20

chains of glucose w/ small chemical differences

ex. starch--how glucose is stored
cellulose--plant fibers
chiton--arthropod exoskeletons

Front 21

why do the chemical differences of polysaccharides make such a big difference?

Back 21

the link in glucose chains causes difference between starch and cellulose

starch is alpha 1,4 link
cellulose is beta 1,4 link

Front 22

why are H-bonds so important in fresh bread

Back 22

the heat has broken H-bonds of the coils so starch is soft.

after 2 days, starch coils up and bread gets hard

Front 23

in ironing?

Back 23

same deal with the bread.H bonds broken when ironing, they reform when cooling

Front 24

how is chitin formed?

Back 24

alpha 1,4 linked, but N-acetyl group on each glucose changes geometry so H-bonds form a sheet

Front 25

what are nucleic acids?

Back 25

they make up DNA and RNA

DNA--T C G A
As with Ts
Cs with Gs

RNA uses AUCG
As with Us
Cs with Gs

Front 26

DNA?
RNA?

Back 26

DNA- deoxyribonucleic acid
RNA- ribonucleic acid

Front 27

what are proteins?
enzymes?

Back 27

proteins do all the work in cells. they are giant molecules (200 amino acids)

enzymes cause metabolic reactions (there are 15,000 in humans)

Front 28

keratin?

Back 28

is a protein for fibers on skin cells.

if skin is irritated, skin cells make more keratin and a lot die (become cellulosed).

keratin is a family of proteins, evolved from pre-fish

Front 29

how did keratin evolve?

Back 29

sea squirts, no scales
fish, have scales which is modified keratin
--had no teeth, which evolved as modified scales, so teeth are keratin gene
amphibians-claws are modified scales
reptiles--claws, teeth, skin, scales, horn are keratin
mammals--hair is modified scales
birds--feathers are modified scales

Front 30

how do muscle cells respond to stimuli?

Back 30

fibers in muscles contract when ATP gives up a P and lengthens when a P is removed.

ADP is then recycled by the mitochondria where it gets another P to go back to ATP

Front 31

what is insulin? and what happens if its too high or too low?

Back 31

its a 60 amino acid protein. a hormone that regulates sugar levels.

too high--candies the tissue resulting in eye and kidney damage and blood vessel damage

too low--pass out due to lack of ATP for brain

Front 32

when discovered? how?

Back 32

1930s--get it from cow pancreas, but wasnt the same amino acid sequence so there was some allergy to it.

1985--first genetic engineering experiment put the human gene in a bacteria, which made human insulin

Front 33

how are amino acids structured?

Back 33

they are all the same, except for the R group which is different (20 types)

Front 34

what are the 5 types of amino acids?

Back 34

1. nonpolar R group--Rgroup avoids water, aa fold into center of protein

2. polar uncharged--Rgroup has --OH

3. charged Rgroup--ionized with a full charge

4. aromatic group--bonds to each other by stacking. results in benzene ring (smells like pine tar)

5. special function--have SH group--very reactive

Front 35

what is the folding sequence of aa?

Back 35

1. primary structure--straight line
2. secondary structure--alpha helix (curley cue) or beta plated sheet (straight, wavy, straight)
3. tertiary folding--more complex folding guided by R groups (some proteins are finished folding here)
4. quaternary folding--subunit proteins stick together (most enzymes are folded like this)

Front 36

how many proteins with 100 amino acids could theoretically be made?

Back 36

20 to the 100th power

Front 37

what is sickle cell anemia caused by?

Back 37

a mutation of the beta chain 5 amino acids from the end is changed

Front 38

what are the types of R-group bonds?

Back 38

1. H-bond
2. disulfide bridge (hair keratin has lots of sulfide bridges--that's why it smells funny)
3. ionic bond--
4. van der waals bond--done by nonpolar R-groups
5. hydrophobic bonding--60% of total bonding forces

Front 39

what is a motif?

Back 39

very common foldings made of alpha helix and beta sheet chains (in secondary folding)

Front 40

what are the types of motifs?

Back 40

1. beta alpha beta--seen in many proteins (located in the active site)--called rossman fold
2. beta barrel--rolled up into tube--transporter proteins have it

Front 41

what is a domain?

Back 41

very common tertiary shapes

Front 42

chromosomes in eukaryotes and prokaryotes?

Back 42

eukaryotes--straight chromosomes
prokaryotes--circular chromosomes

Front 43

what do chaperone proteins do?

Back 43

they help slightly denatured (unfolded) proteins refold. if the protein won't refold, enzymes will break it down into amino acids.

Front 44

what are the causes of denaturation?

Back 44

1. heat--breaks H-bonds
2. acidic conditions
3. high salt--breaks H-bonds and ionic bonds

Front 45

can proteins fold up by themselves?

Back 45

yes, in the 1950s it was discovered that once the gene makes the aa sequence the work is done

ribonuclease helps folding

Front 46

what are lipids? the types of lipids?

Back 46

lipids are any non-polar bio molecule, meaning it wont dissolve in water, blood, or cytoplasm

types:
1. triglyceridges--fats and oils
2. phospholipids--make membranes
3. steroids--cholesterol (part of cell membranes)
4. waxes

Front 47

what are the edible fats and oils?

Back 47

1. triglycerides (energy supply storage)
2. mineral oil--is a nondigestible laxative
3. motor oil--nondigestible laxative

Front 48

what is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fats?

Back 48

unsaturated have 2 double bonds. cannot interlock so are more healthy

saturated are easily turned into cholesterol by body. they are able to interlock and become solid, which clog the vessels

Front 49

how many calories in fats? in carbs?

Back 49

fats=9 kcal/gram
carbs=4 kcal/gram

Front 50

where do plants and animals store food?

Back 50

plants--store starch in the roots, which is converted to sucrose in the spring. its heavy, but plants don't move so that's okay

animals--store glycogen in liver, but most storage is fat under the skin. this is much lighter for movement

Front 51

how do enzymes cause chemical reactions?

Back 51

by changing activation energy

Front 52

what does thermodynamics mean?

Back 52

means heat + moving, changing

Front 53

what are the laws of thermodynamics?

Back 53

1. energy cannot be created or destroyed--ends up as heat dispersed in universe
2. entropy increases in any system
3. it's impossible to get anything to absolute zero because there will always be something that will radiate heat

Front 54

exergonic? endergonic?

Back 54

exergonic--real reactions--results in a drop of G
endergonic--do not occur, they are theoretical. to make them real they must be couple with exergonic reactions.

Front 55

what happens to a reaction when an enzyme is present?

Back 55

the reaction proceeds faster. water moves 700 mph on average and so its easier for water to break the bonds

without an enzyme, water doesn't move fast enough to break the bonds. only a few water molecules move fast enough

Front 56

what are some factors that affect enzymes?

Back 56

1. temperature
2. pH
3. chemicals

Front 57

how do chemicals affect enzymes?

Back 57

some activate enzymes, but most inhibit

Front 58

what are the types of enzyme inhibitors?

Back 58

1. non competitive inhibitors
2. competitive inhibitors
3. allosteric inhibitors

Front 59

non competitive inhibitors?

Back 59

chemicals that cause general damage to the enzyme, not just to the active site. example: antiseptics

Front 60

competitive?

Back 60

jams the enzyme, causes a hole, and kills bacteria. only works on growing bacteria

penicillin works this way, and so does almost every other drug

Front 61

allosteric?

Back 61

controls rates by binding to a site other than the active site

Front 62

why were antibiotics called the "magical bullet" in the 1930s?

Back 62

because they shoot bacteria but not humans. humans don't have cell walls.

Front 63

what are the membranes in the cell? what are the made up of?

Back 63

1. nuclear membrane
2. cell membrane
3. endoplasmic reticulum
4. mitochondria

made up of phospholipid bilayer

Front 64

how does sand occur in the eye?

Back 64

lysozyme (in tears) kills bacteria on the surface of eye and keeps eyes from being destroyed by bacteria in the air.

lysozyme hydrolyzes the sugar chains in cell walls of bacteria, killing it and turning it to sand

Front 65

what is the fluid mosaic model of membranes?

Back 65

1970. made of phospholipids, but has proteins also.

can still a needle in and it wont pop. areas where it isnt fluid will tear.

Front 66

what is the RNA world theory?

Back 66

that there are ribozymes (enzymes made of RNA instead of aa chains).

the 1st living organisms were completely made of RNA. discovered ribozymes in 1990 so there could be enzyes made of RNA

Front 67

what are the types of cell specificity?

Back 67

1. developmental--cells can recognize what cells stick to (ex. tendon sticks to bone). sugar chains are different on different cells
2. self-recognition--all a person's cells have certain sugar chemicals that are unique to that person. their immune system will attack anything that doesnt have the sucgar chain.

Front 68

how does a newborn's immune system work?

Back 68

it wont attack anything for the first few weeks. it gets all its antibiotics from the mother's milk

Front 69

what is a cell regonition screw up?

Back 69

when the immune system attacks your own cells (ex. arthrities, MS, lupus)

Front 70

history of DNA?

Back 70

1. 1869 meischer discovered slimy chemical in all cells (DNA)
had no idea what it did
2. 1905--Feulgen--made a red dye that stained skin permanently (why?)
-looked at the stained cells under a microscope and found chromosomes stained red, and realized they had DNA
3. 1929 Griffith--in 1918 there was a flu epidemic, and griffith wanted to make a vaccine against pneumonia
4. avery--there's something genetic in that vaccine and he discovered it. took til 1943 to prove transforming factor is DNA

Front 71

are genes DNA?

Back 71

maybe, might be proteins because chromosomes also have proteins

Front 72

can you die from the flu?

Back 72

no, but it weakens the immune system making you vulnerable to pneumonia, which people die from.

10% of europe and us died from it after WWI due to people intermixing

Front 73

how did griffith's vaccine work?

Back 73

1. take bacteria and boil it, which kills the bacteria but keeps the proteins (DNA, etc)
2. inject heat killed bacteria into blood, so people develop antibodies in 3 days. they are made for life and protect against the disease

Front 74

why didn't his original vaccine work?

Back 74

because there are 2 strains of pneumonia. nonvirulent and virulent.
10% of people have nonvirulent and don't know it. doscovered (through mice tests) that the vaccine he created worked in 90% of the people, but activated the nonvirulent type in the other 10%, killing them

he then abandoned the vaccine after he realized so many would die.