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160 Cards in this Set
- Front
- Back
Tissues
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A collection of specialized cells and cell products that perform a specific, LIMITED function
-- having a limited function doesn't mean that cells can't survive on their own (still have their own organelles, etc.) - Structures with discrete structural and functional properties - Tissues combine to form organs (Ex: heart or liver) |
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How many organ systems are there?
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Organs can be grouped into 11 organ systems.
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Basic Types of Tissues
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1. Epithelial Tissue
2. Connective Tissue 3. Muscle Tissue 4. Neural Tissue |
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Epithelial Tissue
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Cells that cover body or inner lining of body to protect it
- Covers exposed surfaces (Ex: Skin) - Lines internal passageways (Ex: Digestive Tract) - Forms Glands (Ex: Sweat Glands, Endocrine Glands) |
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Connective Tissue
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*composed of many types of cells
- Fills internal spaces (Ex: Adipose) - Supports other tissues (Ex: Bone) - Transports materials (wastes, nutrients, etc.) (Ex: Blood) - Stores energy reserves (Ex: Adipose) |
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Muscle Tissue
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- specialized for contraction
- Three Different Types |
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Types of Muscle Tissue:
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1. Skeletal Muscle (the only muscle type with voluntary
control) 2. Cardiac (heart) Muscle 3. Smooth Muscle (walls of hollow organs) |
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Neural Tissue
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Function:
-- Carries electrical signals from one part of the body to another (either from body to brain or brain to body) *Includes neurons and neuroglia that support them |
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Epithelia
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Layers of cells covering internal or external surfaces
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Internal Surfaces
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Lines digestive, respiratory, reproductive, and urinary tracts
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External Surfaces
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Surface of skin
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Glands
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Structures that produce secretions
Two Types: 1. Exocrine Glands 2. Endocrine Glands |
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Exocrine Glands
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release substances onto a surface
Ex: Release sweat onto skin; digestively release enzymes into stomach |
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Endocrine Glands
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Release substances into interstitial fluid surrounding it
Ex: through capillaries |
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Functions of Epithelial Tissue:
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1. Provide Physical Protection
2. Control Permeability 3. Provide Sensation 4. Produce Specialized Secretions - glandular epithelium |
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Control Permeability
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** A function of Epithelial Tissue
can be regulated and modified in response to stimuli Ex: Hormones can affect transport across epithelia, physical labor forms calluses |
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Provide Sensation
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** A function of Epithelial Tissue
- Contains sensory neurons - Neuroepithelium |
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Neuroepithelium
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Epithelium specialized to perform a specific sensory function (smell, taste, sight, hearing, equilibrium)
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Produce Specialized Secretions
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** A function of Epithelial Tissue
Glandular Epithelium |
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5 Qualities of Epithelia:
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1. Polarity
2. Cellularity 3. Attachment 4. Avascularity 5. Regeneration |
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Polarity
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**A quality of epithelia
Apical (top) and basal (bottom) surfaces |
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Apical
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top
surface where the cell is exposed to an internal or external environment Contains: 1. Microvilli 2. Cilia |
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Microvilli
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increase absorption or secretion
Ex: Digestive and Urinary tracts |
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Cilia
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Ciliated Epithelium
move fluid Ex: Respiratory tract |
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Basal (basolateral)
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bottom
Includes BOTH the base and the sides of the cell that comes into contact with its neighbors |
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Cellularity (intercellular connections)
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**A quality of epithelia
* Support and communication Epithelia are interconnected by cell junctions Each of the cells are connected to each other by trans-membrane proteins -- Provides support, strength and communication to the cell |
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Attachment
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**A quality of epithelia
Base of epithelia are attached to basement membrane, or basal lamina |
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Avascularity
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**A quality of epithelia
lack blood vessels |
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Regeneration
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**A quality of epithelia
Continuously replaced by stem cell divisions (Since epithelial cells are always exposed to external environment, they are in constantly changing environments and die a lot. That is why epithelial cells can regenerate) |
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Intercellular Connections (Cellularity)
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**A quality of epithelia
Support and Communication 1. CAM's (cell adhesion molecules) 2. Cell Junctions |
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CAMs
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Cell Adhesion Molecules
Trans-membrane proteins that bind to large areas of the plasma membrane to other cells or to extracellular materials |
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Cell Junctions
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specialized areas of membrane that form bonds with other cells or extracellular material
3 Types (tight junctions, gap junctions, desmosomes) |
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Types of Cell Junctions:
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1. Tight Junctions
2. Gap Junctions 3. Desmosomes |
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Tight Junctions:
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Interlocking membrane proteins connect plasma membrane
- Very Tight Seal -- Prevents passage of water and solutes between the connected membranes - In the lumen (passageway) of the digestive tract, function to isolate enzymes, acids, and wastes -- Keeps those items inside the lumen |
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Gap Junctions
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Holds two cells together by channel proteins (junctional proteins, connexons)
-- Allow rapid communication --- Allows movement of small molecules and ions between cells -- Coordinate contractions in heart muscle * Not only do they connect cells together, but they have a hole of some sorts that allows cytoplasm from one cell to be connected to another (Allows for movement of materials between cells quickly) |
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Desmosomes
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very strong, can resist stretching, bending, twisting, compression
CAMs connect adjacent plasma membranes Two Types of Desmosomes (Spot and Hemidesmomsomes) |
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Two Types of Desmosomes:
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1. Spot desmosomes
2. Hemidesmosomes |
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Spot Desmosomes
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small discs connected to intermediate filaments, ties cell together, stabilizes cel
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Hemidesmosomes
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"half of a spot desmosome"
attach cells to the basal lamina to anchor underlying tissue |
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Attachment (to the Basement Membrane)
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**A quality of epithelia
Two Layers: 1. Clear Layer (lamina lucida) 2. Dense Layer (lamina densa) |
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Clear Layer
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lamina lucida
layer closest to epithelia -- Thin layer secreted by epithelia -- Functions as barrier to proteins |
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Dense Layer
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lamina densa
- Thick fibers produced by connective tissue - Provides strength and acts as a filter for diffusion of materials between adjacent tissue and epithelium |
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Avascularity
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**A quality of epithelia
no blood vessels in epithelial tissue Nutrients, gases, wastes need to diffuse to/from tissue |
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Regeneration
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*Epithelial Maintenance and Repair
Epithelia are replaced by division of germinative cells (stem cells) -- Near basement membrane |
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Germinative Cells
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stem cells
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Singular form
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Epithelium
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Plural form
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Epithelia
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Classes of Epithelia
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1. Based on Shape
2. Based on Layers |
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Based on Shape
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*a way to classify epithelia
1. Squamous epithelia (thin and flat) 2. Cuboidal epithelia (square shaped) 3. Columnar epithelia (tall, slender rectangles) |
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Based on Layers
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*a way to classify epithelia
1. Simple epithelium (single layer of cells) 2. Stratified epithelium (several layers of cells) |
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"Special" Simple Squamous Epithelia
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single layer of flat and thin epithelial cells
- Lones chambers and passageways that do not communicate with outside world - Includes: 1. Mesothelium 2. Endothelium |
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Mesothelium
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lines body cavities
Ex: Pleura, peritoneum, pericardium |
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peritoneum
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mesothelium that surrounds abdominal cavity and lines its organs
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pericardium
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mesothelium that surrounds the heart
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Endothelium
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lines inner surface of heart and blood vessels
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Gladular Epithelia
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*remember, glands are composed of epithelial cells
Two Types: 1. Endocrine Glands 2. Exocrine Glands |
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Endocrine Glands:
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ductless glands
- Release hormones into interstitial fluid which then enters the bloodstream (not secreted onto a surface) Ex: Thyroid, pituitary (anterior and posterior) glands |
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Exocrine Glands
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glands with ducts
- Produce secretions that are released onto epithelial surfaces - Classified by mode and type of secretion -- Three Modes -- Three Types Ex: Sweat from sweat glands, milk from mammary glands |
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Modes of Secretion by Exocrine Glands
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1. Merocrine Secretion
2. Apocrine Secretion 3. Holocrine Secretion |
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Merocrine Secretion
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*exocrine glands
* Most common mode of secretion - Released by vesicles (exocytosis) Ex: sweat glands, mucin (mixes with water to form mucus) |
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Apocrine Secretion
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*exocrine glands
Release of substances through shedding of the apical surface - Released by shedding cytoplasm - Apical part of cell is lost (along with the cytoplasm and inclusions |
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Holocrine Secretion
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*exocrine glands
Cells fill up with materials it wants to secrete and then bursts - Released by cells bursting, killing gland cell -- Entire cell fills with secretory products before bursting - Gland cells replaced by stem cells Ex: sebaceous glands found at hair follicles * These cells actually die and need to be replenished (hence the stem cells) |
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Mode that Mammary Glands Secrete Milk
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Release milk by combination of apocrine and merocrine secretions
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Types of Exocrine Secretions:
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1. Serous Glands
2. Mucous Glands 3. Mixed Exocrine Glands |
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Serous Glands
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watery secretions
Ex: saliva by parotid salivary glands |
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Mucous Glands
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Secrete mucins (mixes with water to form mucus)
Ex: Mucins from sublingual salivary glands and submucosal glands of small intestine |
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Mixed Endocrine Glands
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both serous and mucous
Ex: Submandibular (salivary) glands |
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Two Main Exocrine Groups
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1. Unicellular Glands
2. Multicellular Glands |
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Unicellular Glands
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*exocrine glands
Mucous (goblet) cells are the ONLY unicellular exocrine glands (most common type) -- Scattered among epithelia Ex: in intestinal lining (secretes mucous onto lining) |
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Multicellular glands
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*Exocrine glands
Secretory sheet where gland cells can form epithelium that releases product into an inner compartment Ex: Mucin-secreting cells in stomach, salivary glands |
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Characteristics to Describe Multicellular Exocrine Glands:
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1. Structure of the Duct
2. Shape of Secretory Portion of the Gland 3. Relationship Between Ducts and Glandular Areas |
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Structure of the Duct
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*A Characteristic to Describe Multicellular Exocrine Glands
1. Simple (undivided) - Single duct 2. Compound (divided) - divides one or more times on its way to the gland cells |
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Shape of Secretory Portion of the Gland:
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*A Characteristic to Describe Multicellular Exocrine Glands
1. Tubular: -- Tube shaped -- can be straight or coiled 2. Alveolar or acinar -- blind pockets 3. Tubuloalveolar or tubuloacinar -- Both tubes AND pockets |
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Tubular
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tube shaped
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Alveolar (acinar)
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blind pockets
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Tubuloalveolar (tubuloavinar)
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both tubes AND pockets
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Relationship Between Ducts and Glandular Areas
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*A Characteristic to Describe Multicellular Exocrine Glands
Branched: -- Several secretory areas sharing one duct |
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Basic Characteristics of Connective Tissue
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1. Specialized Cells (more than 1 cell type)
2. Solid Extracellular Protein Fiber (for support) 3. Fluid Extracellular Ground Substance |
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Ground Substance
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besides filling the spaces between cells, the ground substance also slows pathogen movement
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Matrix
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the extracellular components of connective tissue
-- Fibers and Ground Substance - The majority of connective tissue volume - Determines specialized function |
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Functions of Connective Tissue
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1. Establishing a structural framework for the body
2. Transporting fluids and dissolved materials (Ex: lymph) 3. Protecting Delicate Organs (Ex: Adipose tissue) 4. Supporting, Surrounding, and Interconnecting other types of tissue (Ex: Regular and Irregular Disconnective Tissue) 5. Storing Energy Reserves (especially in the form of triglycerides) 6. Defending the body from invading microorganisms (Ex: WBC's) |
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Three Categories of Connective Tissue:
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1. Connective Tissue Proper
2. Fluid Connective Tissues 3. Supporting Connective Tissues |
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Connective Tissue Proper
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*A category of connective tissue
Functions to connect and protect More rigid and used to bind things together Ex: Tendons and adipose |
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Fluid Connective Tissues
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*A category of connective tissue
Function in transportation Ex: Blood and Lymph -- Transport materials to cells and wastes away from cell |
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Supporting Connective Tissues
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*A category of connective tissue
Provides structural strength Ex: Cartilage and Bone |
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Connective Tissue Proper Cell Populations:
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1. Fibroblasts
2. Fibrocytes 3. Adipocytes 4. Mesenchymal Cells 5. Macrophages 6. Mast Cells 7. Lymphocytes 8. Melanocytes |
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Fibroblasts
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The most abundant cell type
found in all connective tissue proper secrete proteins and hyaluronan (cellular cement) |
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Hyaluronan
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cellular cement secreted by fibroblasts
holds things together and prevents cells from moving around too much |
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Fibrocytes
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the second most abundant cell type
-- Develop from Fibroblasts!!!! Found in all connective tissue proper Maintain the fibers of connective tissue proper |
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Adipocytes
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Adipose Cells (Fat cells)
Each cell stores a single, large fat droplet (droplet grows/shrinks) Functions as energy reserve and cushions tissues/organs |
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Mesenchymal Cells
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Found in many connective tissue
Stem cells that respond to injury or infection -- Differentiate into fibroblasts, macrophages, etc. --- Produce other types of tissue cells Derived from embryonic mesenchyme |
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Macrophages
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Large, amoeba-like cells of the immune system
Functions to engulf pathogens and damaged cells -- (undergo phagocytosis to swallow up diseases to break them down and keep them from spreading) Two Classes: 1. Fixed Macrophages 2. Free Macrophages |
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Fixed Macrophages
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Stay in tissue
Frontline defense, reinforced by free macrophages and other cells |
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Free Macrophages
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migrate through tissue
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Mast Cells
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Stimulate inflammation after injury or infection
- Release histamine and heparin |
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Histamine
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dilates blood vessels
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Haparin
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anticoagulant
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Basophils
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leukocytes (WBC's) that also contain histamine and heparin
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leukocytes
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White blood cells
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Lymphocytes
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specialized immune cells in lymphatic (lymphoid) system
Ex: Lymphocytes may develop into plasma cells (plasmocytes) that produce antibodies -- Vaccines stimulate some lymphocytes to become plasma cells to produce antibodies * A subclass of leukocytes (WBC's) and are basically specialized leukocytes |
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Plasmocytes
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plasma cells that produce antibodies
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Melanocytes
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Synthesize and store the brown pigment melanin
-- Located in eye and dermis of skin |
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Mesenchyme
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Embryonic connective tissue
Embryonic stem cells - First connective tissue to appear in embryos - Gives rise to all other connective tissues *Not found in adults! -- though many adult connective tissues do have mesenchymal stem cells for tissue repair |
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Adipose Tissue
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Contains many adipocytes (fat cells)
- Incapable of dividing!!!! -- Shrinks when nutrients are scarce (do NOT die) -- Weight lost at area can be regained - More produced by mesenchymal cells if needed by dies Two Types: 1. White Fat 2. Brown Fat *surrounds organs and can store energy * can't divide or go through mitosis! |
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Types of Adipose Tissue
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1. White Fat
2. Brown Fat |
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White Fat
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* most common
1. Stores fat 2. Absorbs shocks 3. Slows heat loss (insulation) |
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Brown Fat
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widespread in the fetus and infant (only small amounts in adults
- more vascularized - Adipocytes have many mitochondria - When stimulated by nervous system, fat breakdown speeds up --> releases energy - Energy is absorbed by surrounding tissues --> heats body/blood |
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Fluid Connective Tissues
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*Blood and Lymph
Has a watery matrix of dissolved proteins Carries specific cell types (formed elements) |
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Formed Elements of Blood:
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1. Red Blood Cells (erythrocytes)
2. White Blood Cells (leukocytes) 3. Platelets |
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Erythrocytes
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Red Blood Cells
Responsible for the transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood Make up 50% blood volume and give blood its color |
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Leukocytes
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White Blood Cells
** do not confuse leukocytes with lymphocytes (which is a special TYPE of leukocyte) Help defend the body from infection and disease (Monocytes, lymphocytes, eosinophil, neutrophil, basophil) |
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Platelets
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Are actually not cells but fragments of cells
Cause coagulation (blood clots) -- Prevents blood loss and decreased blood pressure Membrane-enclosed packets of cytoplasm --> blood clotting |
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Fluid Elements of Connective Tissues
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Extracellular Fluid Includes:
1. Plasma 2. Interstitial Fluid 3. Lymph |
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Interstitial Fluid
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a type of extracellular fluid
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Lymph
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Fluid that is created when blood pushes fluid out of capillaries
Extracellular fluid collected from interstitial space (leftover fluid from the capillaries) - Monitored by immune system - Transported by lymphatic (lymphoid system) - Returned to venous system (cardiovascular system) |
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Supporting Connective Tissues:
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1. Cartilage
2. Bone support soft tissues and body weight |
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Cartilage
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Gel-type ground substance
Used for shock absorption and protection - produced by chondrocytes - avascular |
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Bone (osseous tissue)
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Calcified (made rigid by calcium salts, minerals)
Used for weight support Maintained by osteocytes - Strong (calcified calcium salt deposits) - Resists shattering (flexible collagen fibers) |
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Chondrocytes
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Produce cartilage
Produce antiagiogenesis factor (prevents blood vessel formation --> slow repair of damaged cartilage) |
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Membranes
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- Physical Barriers
-- Prevents foreign material from entering and nutrients from leaving - Line or cover portions of the body Consist of: 1. An epithelium 2. Supported by connective tissue |
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Four Types of Membranes
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1. Mucous Membranes
2. Serous Membranes 3. Cutaneous Membranes 4. Synovial Membranes **Mucous, serous, and cutaneous membranes are al epithelial tissue |
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Mucous Membranes (Mucosae)
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- Line passageways that have external connections
- In digestive, respiratory, urinary, and reproductive tracts - Epithelial surfaces must be moist -- To reduce friction -- To facilitate absorption and excretion - Lamina propria supports it Have a layer of mucous that protects them from the external environment (reduces friction, facilitates absorption and excretion) |
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Lamina Propria
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connective tissue component that supports the superior epithelial tissues
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Serous Membranes
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- Line cavities not open/exposed to the outside
- Are thin but strong - Have fluid called transudate - Two Layers (with fluid in between) 1. Parietal 2. Visceral Ex: pericardium, etc. |
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Transudate
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a fluid in serous membranes that is used to reduce friction and lubricate the membrane
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Parietal layer
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layer of serous membranes that cover the body cavity
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Visceral Layer (serosa)
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layer of serous membranes that cover the organs
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Types of Serous Membranes
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1. Pleura
2. Peritoneum 3. Pericardium |
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Pleura
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*a type of serous membrane
Parietal: Lines pleural cavities Visceral: Covers lungs |
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Peritoneum
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*a type of serous membrane
Parietal: Lines peritoneal cavity Visceral: Covers abdominal organs |
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Pericardium
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*a type of serous membrane
Parietal: Lines pericardial cavity Visceral: Covers heart |
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Cutaneous Membranes
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Skin
- found on the surface of the body - Thick - "Waterproof" - Dry |
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Synovial Membranes
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line moving, articulating joint cavities
Synoviocytes line cavity, produce synovial fluid (lubricant) - Protect the ends of bones - Lack a true epithelium |
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Synoviocytes
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sparsely dispersed cells that line cavities and produce lubricating synovial fluid
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Functions of Connective Tissues:
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1. Provide Strength and Stability
2. Maintain positions of internal organs 3. Provide routes for blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and nerves |
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Fascie
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different layers of connective tissue
singular: fascia - The body's framework of connective tissue - Layers and wrappings that support or surround organs |
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Three Types of Fasciae
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1. Superficial Fascia (hypodermis)
2. Deep Fascia 3. Subserous Fascia |
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Superficial Fascia
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hypodermis
provides insulation and padding |
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Deep Fascia
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resist multidirectional forces
bound to capsules around most organs, tendons, and ligaments |
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Subserous Fascia
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protects body cavity lining when muscles/muscular organs move
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Muscle Tissue
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- Specialized for Contraction
- Produces all body Movement 3 Types (Skeletal, cardiac, smooth) |
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Types of Muscle Tissue:
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1. Skeletal Muscle Tissue
2. Cardiac Muscle Tissue 3. Smooth Muscle Tissue |
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Skeletal Muscle Tissue
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large body muscles responsible for VOLUNTARY movement
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Cardiac muscle Tissue
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Found only in the heart
INVOLUNTARY |
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Smooth Muscle Tissue
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Found in walls of hollow, contracting organs (blood vessels, urinary bladder, respiratory, digestive, and reproductive tracts)
INVOLUNTARY |
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Classifications of Muscle Cells:
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1. Striated vs. Non-striated
2. Single Nucleus vs. Multinucleate 3. Voluntary vs. Involuntary |
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Striated
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muscle cells with a banded appearance
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Non-striated
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not banded; smooth muscle
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Multinucleate
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multiple nuclei
Ex: Skeletal Muscle |
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Voluntary
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conscious control
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Involuntary
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automatic control
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Skeletal Muscle Cells
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- Long and Thin
- Striated - Multi-nucleated - Usually called muscle fibers - Do NOT divide -- but new fibers are produced by stem cells (myosatellite cells) --> Low Repair Ability |
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Myosatellite Cells
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repair damaged muscle cells, but do NOT replace those fibers
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Cardiac Muscle Cells
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- Striated
- Single Nucleus - Cardiocytes Form branching networks connected at intercalated discs (contains gap junctions) |
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Smooth Muscle Cells
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- Non-striated
- Small and tapered - CAN divide and regenerate |
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Neural Tissue (nervous/nerve tissue)
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- Specialized for conducting electrical impulses
-- Sends electrical signals to other cells through a cell process called an axon - Rapidly senses internal or external environment - Processes information and controls responses - Neural tissue is concentrated in the CNS |
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Central Nervous System
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brain and spinal cord
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Types of Neural Cells:
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1. Neurons
2. Neuroglia |
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Neurons
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nerve cells
Perform electrical communication -- Send and receive impulses/commands |
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Neuroglia
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supporting cells
Repair and supply nutrients to neurons - Clean up to keep environment healthy and nice |